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A toolkit for open source researchers

Welcome to Bellingcat’s Online Open Source Investigation Toolkit!

This is your place to discover tools! Our toolkit includes satellite and mapping services, tools for verifying photos and videos, websites to archive web pages, and much more. Most of the tools that we include can be used for free.

Click on the name of a tool to view an in-depth review and guide for the tool (if available). You can also download this toolkit (or some of its categories) as a csv.

Browse tools by category:

About

This toolkit is still a work-in-progress and the number of available tool descriptions will grow over time. You can read more about the toolkit .

Our Toolkit Maintainers and Guardians

Bellingcat’s Online Investigation Toolkit has a long tradition but our newest version is special: It is offered in collaboration with the Bellingcat volunteer community.

Bellingcat volunteers, staff and the wider open source researcher community contribute to writing and updating toolkit descriptions. Bellingcat staff checks each toolkit entry before it goes online.

If our Toolkit Maintainers choose to be publicly mentioned, you can find their names on individual tool pages under "page maintainer".

Our Toolkit Guardians have a special role: They help us further develop this toolkit to make sure it meets the needs of open source researchers.

Contribute to this Toolkit

If you are an expert for a specific category of open source research tools and you would like to contribute to this toolkit, get in touch with Johanna via . Feel free to introduce yourself and share a few words about your tool expertise. We would love to hear from you.

Keep in mind that contributing to our toolkit is a long-term volunteer commitment: You write tool descriptions and update them on a monthly basis. We do not accept volunteer contributors whose identity we don’t know.

Please do not suggest tools that should be added to the toolkit via this e-mail address.

Bellingcat Team and Contact

This collaborative toolkit has been designed by Bellingcat staff member Johanna Wild during her 2024 Nieman-Berkman Klein Fellowship in Journalism Innovation at Harvard University.

Viktorija Ignatavičiūtė and Galen Reich contributed to defining the volunteer involvement for this project, with Viktorija Ignatavičiūtė supporting our toolkit volunteer community also on a daily basis.

If you have any feedback or questions, please get in touch with Johanna Wild via . Please do not suggest tools that you would like to see added to the toolkit via this e-mail address.

About Bellingcat

Bellingcat is an independent investigative collective of researchers, investigators and citizen journalists brought together by a passion for open source research. Learn more about Bellingcat in this .

You can follow 's work here:

, , , , , , , , , , (Stage Talks), , , . You can always find an updated list of our social media presence .

Maps & Satellites

Maps

Name

Description

Cost

Tool Review and Guide

About Maps and Satellites

A guide to using map and satellite tools.

Free

Apple Maps

Apple Maps is a digital mapping service with detailed, interactive maps, satellite imagery, and location-based information.

Free

Baidu Maps

Satellite Imagery

Name

Description

Cost

Tool Review and Guide

About Maps and Satellites

A guide to using map and satellite tools.

Free

Baidu Maps

Baidu’s mapping service offering satellite imagery, street maps, and streetview (“Panorama” - zh:百度全景).

Free

Bing Maps

Street View

Name

Description

Cost

Tool Review and Guide

About Maps and Satellites

A guide to using map and satellite tools.

Free

Baidu Maps

Baidu’s mapping service offering satellite imagery, street maps, and streetview (“Panorama” - zh:百度全景).

Free

Bing Maps

Image/Video

Resources

AllTrails

AllTrails.com is a tool for discovering hiking, biking, and running trails worldwide, providing detailed trail maps, user reviews, and navigation support for outdoor enthusiasts.

URL

https://www.alltrails.com/

Description

AllTrails.com is a tool for discovering hiking, biking, and running trails worldwide, providing detailed trail maps, user reviews, and navigation support for outdoor enthusiasts.

AllTrails.com can be a valuable resource for open source researchers as it provides location data, user-generated content, and real-time information about various trails. Examples include tracking the movement patterns of individuals of public interest who share their activities publicly, analyzing geospatial data, and gathering insights from user reviews and pictures posted on the platform. It can also assist in understanding the terrain and accessibility of certain areas.

Features

Map

Current Location: option to centre map at users location.
Zoom tool: zoom in and out on the map.
Layers:

Explore

Trails - Curated AllTrails content and user-created Community trails

Individual Trails

Photos
Directions
Print

Community

Local: see public user activity nearby.
Following: see activity from user's that you follow.
Engagement: Like and Comment on posts.

Profile - users' personal profile and where they have made public contributions that can be seen on other people's profiles.

Favourites
Photos
Reviews: reviews the user has made.

User Profile

Feed: activities of people you follow.
Create Map: create a custom trail.
Language

Example below shows search for Vondelpark Loop in Amsterdam:

Cost

Free
Partially Free
Paid

Free Tier

Navigate on the trail
Favorite trails
Create lists

Paid Tier

Download offline maps
Get alerts for wrong turns
Live share activities
New Access 200+ Guides Know conditions before you go

Level of difficulty

Requirements

Web: any modern web browser.
Mobile: iOS and Android
Email address: Email address for an account

Limitations

Subscription Fees: Some features require a paid subscription to access, see:
Offline Access: Offline maps are only available to Pro members, see:
User-Generated Content: Information can be inconsistent or outdated due to reliance on user reviews and submissions.

Ethical Considerations

Privacy: open source researchers should exercise responsibility when using All Trails data as not all users will be aware of the .
Stalking: All Trails provides information that can facilitate stalking behaviours. Open source researchers should be aware stalking is a prosecutable offence in most countries, for instance in the UK see sections 2, 2A, 4 and 4A of the (PHA 1997) and . .

Guides and articles

To effectively use AllTrails, especially for beginners or those looking to refine their skills, the following resources are highly recommended:

Official Wiki

Tutorials and Articles

Cox, J. (2023) ‘AllTrails Data Exposes Precise Movements of Former Top Biden Official’, Vice, 8 March. Available at: (Accessed: 17 June 2024).
Getting Started with AllTrails+ Overview (2023) AllTrails Help. Available at: (Accessed: 17 June 2024).

Video Tutorials

How to Use AllTrails 2022 (2022). Available at: (Accessed: 17 June 2024).
How To Use the AllTrails App (For Beginners) (2022). Available at: (Accessed: 17 June 2024).
University of Connecticut - MediaSpace (no date). Available at: (Accessed: 17 June 2024).

Developer Resources

Community and Support

Tool provider

AllTrails, LLC - USA

Advertising Trackers

This tool has not been checked for advertising trackers yet.
This tool uses tracking cookies. Use with caution.
This tool does not appear to use tracking cookies.

Page maintainer

Bluesky Insights

Bluesky Insights is a free web-based analytics tool for the Bluesky social network.

URL

https://bskyinsights.com

Description

Bluesky Insights is a free, browser‑based analytics site for the Bluesky social network. It pulls publicly viewable profile and post data and turns it into at‑a‑glance metrics (followers/posts), engagement summaries, word‑clouds, and time‑of‑day activity charts; it also surfaces a profile’s current Top Post and “interesting stats” (e.g., favorite hashtag/emoji, average post length). No account authentication is required to view public content on Bluesky, allowing you to analyze any public handle directly in the browser.

Features

Overview Metrics

Total Posts, Following, Followers: A quick snapshot of overall activity and reach.
Average Likes, Reposts, Replies: High-level engagement averages to gauge how each post typically performs.
Favorite Hashtag & Emoji: Identifies which hashtag or emoji appears most often in your posts.

Engagement Rate

Shows likes, reposts, quotes, and replies over a selected time range (e.g., last 7 days).
Includes easy-to-read charts for spotting engagement spikes and trends.

Posts Breakdown by Type

Pie chart illustrating the proportion of original posts, reposts, quotes, and replies.
Quickly see if you’re more of a content creator, curator, or conversationalist.

Word Cloud

Automatically generates a cloud of frequently used words and hashtags in your posts. (The download feature will save it as a *.png file without watermarks.)
Helps reveal dominant themes, topics, or campaigns the user engages with most.

Top Post

Identifies best-performing post, based on likes, reposts, replies, or other interactions.

Posts Activity by Hour

Identifying peak posting times can indicate a user’s likely time zone or routine, which can help in creating a bar chart showing posting times across a 24-hour period.
From an open source research standpoint, identifying peak posting times can indicate a user’s likely time zone or routine, helping to pinpoint when they’re most responsive to events. This allows researchers to focus their monitoring efforts during the most active windows, improving real-time data collection and analysis.

Open Source Research Applications

Profile Monitoring: Analyze public figures, organizations, or suspicious accounts for posting habits and engagement trends.
Disinformation Tracking: Detect potential “coordinated” engagement patterns or sudden spikes in follower counts.
Narrative Analysis: Examine common themes and keywords across user-generated content.

By enabling analytics on Bluesky profiles, Bluesky Insights can provide valuable insights for researchers, journalists, and analysts investigating interactions or influence within this decentralized platform.

Cost

Free
Partially Free
Paid

Free. The site states it “provides a free analytics service for Bluesky users”

Level of difficulty

Point‑and‑click, no install. Enter any public Bluesky handle in a modern browser and read the charts; basic familiarity with social‑media engagement metrics helps when interpreting results. No API keys, cookies, or command line required

Requirements

No sign-up or login required.
Works with any modern web browser (Chrome, Firefox, Safari, etc.).
Bluesky handle for the target profile (e.g., @username.bsky.social).

Limitations

Public‑data only. Private/DM content and posts hidden by labels/moderation workflows will not be available; Bluesky uses an open labeling system that can affect visibility of some content .
Rate limits & stability. The tool depends on Bluesky’s public APIs/streams and can be throttled by service rate limits; Bluesky documents rate‑limiting and developers have discussed a global IP rate cap (e.g., 3,000 calls/5 min) that may affect high‑volume services , .
Realtime leaderboard caveats. The “Live Hashtag Leaderboard” relies on Jetstream (websocket firehose); transient disconnects or client‑side aggregation choices may lead to gaps or brief skew

Ethical Considerations

Respect User Privacy: Although data is public, users may not expect deep analytics done based on their data.
Avoid Misuse: Use responsibly for legitimate open source research purposes.

Guides and articles

Blueprint for Bluesky: An OSINT Guide (OSINT Combine, 2024‑12‑17) — search tips, public‑data access without auth, and monitoring workflows.

Bluesky Developer APIs — official docs hub and HTTP reference.

Advanced Guides: Rate Limits — practical guidance on Bluesky service throttling.

Advanced Guides: Posts — record schema and API examples (useful for interpreting what the tool surfaces).

Tool provider

Developer: Sahaj Jain — • • GitHub: jnsahaj (Gurugram, India; currently @ Vercel) .

License: Unknown / Closed source (no public repository or open‑source license published for Bluesky Insights). See site

Advertising Trackers

This tool has not been checked for advertising trackers yet.
This tool uses tracking cookies. Use with caution.
This tool does not appear to use tracking cookies.

Page maintainer

Bing Maps

Bing Maps is a web mapping service provided by Microsoft that offers detailed geographical information and tools for route planning, location search, and satellite imagery.

URL

https://www.bing.com/maps/

Description

Bing Maps is a web mapping service provided by Microsoft. It offers users access to detailed maps and driving directions, the tool serves various purposes, from helping users navigate from point A to B efficiently, to planning trips, and conducting geographical research.

The imagery includes samples taken by satellite sensors, aerial cameras, 3D city models and terrain.

Features:

Supports multiple languages.
Photo-based images with features such as Streetside and 45 degree oblique "bird’s eye" views (nominally including 4 views at 90 degree viewpoint increments) that present data in context while simplifying orientation and navigation.
The ability to overlay standard or custom data points and layers with different themes.

Bing Maps is available in the following formats:

Web
Mobile
Developer API

Example search results for the term Amsterdam:

Use Cases

Bing Maps can be a valuable tool for open source researchers in various ways, such as:

Geolocation Verification: Verifying the location of a photo or video shared on social media to confirm the authenticity of claims made online.
Investigative Reporting: Tracking and mapping out relevant locations to a story, thereby providing readers with a clearer understanding of the spatial relationships and geographical details of the investigation. One issue to remember is that Bing map imagery may not be up to date see for more information.
Historical Analysis: Comparing current maps with historical data to highlight changes over time in areas of interest, which can add depth to stories on urban development, environmental changes, or socio-economic shift.

Cost

Free
Partially Free
Paid

Developer API may incur costs depending on usage (see: )..

Level of difficulty

Requirements

Web: any modern web browser
Mobile: iOS and Android
Developer Platform: Azure account with email address and a credit card.

Limitations

Licensing and Cost: Bing Maps API incurs costs for extensive usage beyond the provided free usage quotas, which might not be suitable for projects with limited budgets (see: ).
Data Coverage: While comprehensive, Bing Maps has less detailed mapping data in certain remote or less-populated regions compared to other services such as Google Maps.
Developer API Limits: There are daily rate limits on API calls, which may impact large-scale applications or services requiring high numbers of requests (see: ).

Ethical Considerations

When open source researchers use Bing Maps, they should consider the following ethical aspects:

Privacy and Anonymity: Be cautious when reporting on sensitive areas or topics. Ensure individuals' locations or movements are not disclosed without consent, especially in contexts where revealing locations could endanger lives or privacy.
Data Accuracy and Misrepresentation: Verify the accuracy of the information provided by Bing Maps. Misrepresenting a location, either intentionally or accidentally due to outdated or incorrect map data, can lead to misinformation and harm reputations. For more information see .
Impartiality and Bias: Understand the limitations of Bing Maps in representing disputed territories or areas of conflict. Be aware of how the depiction of these areas might convey a particular political stance or bias, affecting the impartiality of the reportage. Examples of this can be seen in

Guide

To effectively use Bing Maps, especially for beginners or those looking to refine their skills, the following resources are highly recommended:

Official Wiki

No official wiki (but the Bing Maps Blog is available here: )
Unofficial GIS Wiki:

Tutorials and Articles

Hanham, M. (2015) There’s a Map for That, bellingcat. Available at: (Accessed: 10 April 2024).
Khachatryan, N. (2019) The Mysterious Disappearance of Jeannette Island (on Google Maps), bellingcat. Available at: (Accessed: 10 April 2024).

Video Tutorials

How to Create and Share Collections in Bing Maps (2022). Available at: (Accessed: 10 April 2024).
How to use Bing Maps for Routing Multiple Addresses (2021). Available at: (Accessed: 10 April 2024).

Developer Resources

Getting Started: Familiarize yourself with Bing Maps by exploring the official .
Developing with Bing Maps: Discover how to integrate Bing Maps into your applications with .

Community and Support

Community Forum:

Tool provider

Microsoft - United States

Advertising Trackers

This tool has not been checked for advertising trackers yet.
This tool uses tracking cookies. Use with caution.
This tool does not appear to use tracking cookies.

Page maintainer

Baidu Maps

A mapping application provided by Chinese technology company Baidu Inc.

URL

Main page, http://map.baidu.com/

API documentation, https://api.map.baidu.com/

Description

Baidu Maps offers maps, street view, satellite imagery, and real-time route planning. It is available via the web browser or as a mobile application.

The basics

In the web version, search for a location. To select layers, point your cursor to the bottom-right corner and 3 options will appear (i.e., default map view, satellite image, or street view). Select the layer you wish to explore.

Note that the reference number at the bottom left, e.g., "GS(2023)1234", refers to the year when the image was approved for publication by the relevant government authority, China's State Bureau of Surveying and Mapping. This is not necessarily the year when the image was captured.

Street view

Street views are generally available on the road networks, indicated by the thickened routes. For a static preview, place the cursor onto the route. Click to enter street view mode.

Street view images are captured by a , which are fitted with single-lens reflex (SLR) cameras, GPS and inertial navigation sensors. However, the fleet's image capture schedules are not made public.

Panoramic preview for street view

See above: From the regular map view, point to the main road (where street view is more likely to be available), right-click to show a shortcut menu > select the first item which means "panoramic preview" in English.

See below: The 360º preview is shown.

Time machine 时光机

The "time machine" function allows you to access older street view images, going as far back as 2013 (if available). From the current street view image, the time machine function is available at the bottom, indicated by a clock icon.

The Enigma of Coordinates in China

Most of the world uses the coordinate system (colloquially known as Earth coordinates), whereas China uses (Mars coordinates). GCJ-02 uses an encryption algorithm that applies random offsets to the latitude and longitude of locations. Obfuscating the geographic data is for .

Baidu Maps goes even further in its BD-09 coordinates system, applying additional encryption based on GCJ-02.

Where to get the coordinates in Baidu Maps

When searching for a location on Baidu Maps, the BD-09 coordinates are shown in the URL.

Another way to search is: . Search for a location and the BD-09 coordinates are shown in the top-right. Note that in Chinese mapping tools, longitude comes before latitude.

To search by coordinates instead, enter the coordinates (longitude first) and check the box for reverse search using coordinates.

3D models

A 3D view is available. Baidu Maps also offers an API for building third-party apps that leverage 3D models and live data:

Global coverage

Baidu Maps' coverage and capabilities are available globally, though the user interface is only available in Chinese. When searching for locations outside China, English search terms can be used.

Underlying technologies and data providers

Baidu Maps' positioning and navigation capabilities are powered by the BeiDou Navigation Satellite System 北斗卫星导航系统. BeiDou is the global positioning and satellite technology developed by the Chinese government, and . (For more about BeiDou: see ; ; an academic article in .)

For all Chinese mapping tools, satellite imagery is provided by China Siwei Surveying & Mapping Technology, which uses data and imagery from DigitalGlobe, the US company.

Outside China, Baidu Maps has a partnership with , the Amsterdam-based mapping and data company. Other OpenStreetMap, MapKing (for Hong Kong and Southeast Asia) and LocalKing (Taiwan).

Similar tools

Open-source researchers can cross-reference with other leading mapping services, including AMap (Gaode Maps) and Tencent Map (QQ Maps).

For open-source researchers accessing Chinese map tools from overseas, Baidu Maps is the only tool that provides street view on the web browser. (Street view is not available on AMap, and is only available in Tencent Map's mobile version.)

Note that all three mapping tools use (at least in part - for their China coverage) the BeiDou Navigation Satellite System for their positioning capabilities. The exact ways that BeiDou is leveraged in each mapping tool depends on the device, the chip, and the location where the mapping tool is used.

Cost

Free
Partially Free
Paid

(Developer API use may be charged)

Level of difficulty

Requirements

Web: any modern web browser
Mobile: iOS and Android (basic functionality is available without registering an account)
Developer Platform: For individual developer accounts, only Chinese citizens can register. (Individuals must be between ages 18 and 65. Real-name registration and a selfie of the individual holding their ID are required.) Company developer accounts can be opened by overseas companies.

Limitations

Researchers and developers should consider several limitations:

Street view imagery can become outdated quickly: Researchers should be aware that street view imagery available from China's map services can become outdated within 2 to 3 years and therefore could be unreliable for verifications. This applies to both urban and rural areas, due to , , and . To verify geolocations, researchers are encouraged to additionally search for user-generated content in Chinese platforms (equivalents of Youtube), including (nicknamed B站 in Chinese, meaning "B station"), , , and . Also check short-form social media (equivalents of Tiktok), including and .
Language Barrier: The user interface is only available in Chinese.

Ethical Considerations

See the Bellingcat toolkit's page for some general caveats when working with maps and satellite imagery including censorship and content control.
Privacy Concerns: Like many mapping services, Baidu Maps gathers user data, raising concerns about user privacy. (Concerns about Baidu Maps' collection of user data were raised in a and in an , which named all leading Chinese mapping tools among 33 apps for extensively collecting user data, beyond what is relevant to their service provision.)

Guide

Tutorials

Baidu Maps (Baidu Ditu 百度地图) And Tutorials in English (no date) BaiduinEnglish.
Extracting Chinese geographic data from Baidu Map API. (December 2020)
Cross-platform complementarity: Assessing the data quality and availability of Google Street View and Baidu Street View (Feburary 2025).

Video Tutorial

Baidu Maps : The Chinese Google Maps (2023). Available at: (French with English transcription).

Bellingcat Articles

What Can Open Sources Reveal About Beijing’s Deadly Floods? Bellingcat. (August 8, 2025)
Europol’s Asian City Child Abuse Photographs Geolocated. Bellingcat. (November 8, 2018)

Articles

How China is tearing down Islam. Financial Times. (November 2023)
Interrogating China’s “Google Maps” to Investigate the Xinjiang Detention Centers. March 2021. Global Investigative Journalism Network.
Baidu found China’s “ghost cities,” but it is keeping their locations mostly a secret (2015). Quartz.

Tool provider

Baidu Inc - China

Advertising Trackers

This tool has not been checked for advertising trackers yet.
This tool uses tracking cookies. Use with caution.
This tool does not appear to use tracking cookies.

Page maintainer

List of additional "Category" filter (CLICK TO EXPAND)

AFV - Armoured Personnel Carrier

AFV - Landmine Clearance

AFV - Main Battle Tank (MBT)

AFV - Multiple Launch Rocket System (MLRS)

AFV - Self-Propelled Anti-Aircraft Gun (SPAAG)

AFV - Self-Propelled Artillery (SPA)

AFV - Towed Artillery

Aircraft Bomb

Aircraft Bomb - Bomblet

Aircraft Bomb - Chemical

Aircraft Bomb - Cluster/Dispenser

Aircraft Bomb - Concrete Piercing (CP)

Aircraft Bomb - Fragmentation

Aircraft Bomb - General Purpose (GP)

Aircraft Bomb - Guided Bomb Unit (GBU)

Aircraft Bomb - High Capacity

Aircraft Bomb - Incendiary

Aircraft Bomb - Practice

Aircraft Bomb - Signal/Illuminating

Firing Device - Anti-Disturbance

Firing Device - Breakwire

Firing Device - Combination

Firing Device - Concussion

Firing Device - Pressure

Firing Device - Pressure Release

Firing Device - Pull

Firing Device - Seismic

Firing Device - Tension Release

Firing Device - Time

Fuze - Aircraft Bomb

Fuze - Depth Charge

Fuze - Grenade Hand

Fuze - Grenade Projected

Fuze - Grenade Rifle

Fuze - Info

Fuze - Landmine

Fuze - Mortar

Fuze - Projectile

Fuze - Rocket

Fuze - Seamine

Fuze - Submunition

Grenade - Hand

Grenade - Projected

Grenade - Rifle

IED

IED - Animal Borne IED (ABIED)

IED - Concealment

IED - Explosive

IED - Improvised Landmine

IED - Incendiary

IED - Main Charge

IED - Postal

IED - Projected

IED - Suicide

IED - Switch

IED - Vehicle Borne IED (VBIED)

Landmine - Anti-Helicopter (AH)

Landmine - Anti-Personnel (AP) Blast

Landmine - Anti-Personnel (AP) Bounding

Landmine - Anti-Personnel (AP) Directional

Landmine - Anti-Personnel (AP) Fragmentation

Landmine - Anti-Vehicle (AV) Blast

Landmine - Anti-Vehicle (AV) Off-Route

Landmine - Anti-Vehicle (AV) Shaped Charge

Landmine - Chemical

Landmine - Clearance Device

Landmine - Delivery Device

Landmine - Improvised Landmine (ILM)

Landmine - Signal Flare

Misc - Accessories

Misc - Decoy

Misc - Demolition Charge

Missile - Air to Air (AAM)

Missile - Air to Surface (ASM)

Missile - Anti-Ship (AShM)

Missile - Anti-Tank (ATGM)

Missile - MANPADS

Missile - Surface to Air (SAM)

Missile - Surface to Surface (SSM)

Mortar - Carrier

Projectile - High Explosive

Projectile - SAA

Projectile -Solid Shot

Projectile - TP, Practice, Training

Rocket - Air to Air

Rocket - Air to Ground

Rocket -Ground to Air

Rocket - Ground to Ground

SALW - Assault Rifle

SALW - ATGM

SALW - Grenade Launcher

SALW - Light Machine Gun (LMG)

SALW - Machine Gun

SALW - MANPADS

SALW - Mortar

SALW - Pistol

SALW - Recoiless Rifle

SALW - Rifle

SALW - Rocket Launcher

SALW - Shotgun

SALW - Submachine gun

Submunition - Anti-Personnel (AP)

Submunition - Anti-Runway (Cratering)

Submunition - Anti-Vehicle (AV)

Submunition - Chemical

Submunition - Dual Purpose (DP)

Submunition - Incendiary

Submunition - Other

UCAV - Loitering Suicide

UCAV - Munition

UCAV - Platform

UCAV - Suicide

Unknown

Chronotrains

Chronotrains is a free interactive map designed to explore the reach of Europe’s extensive rail network. Enter a starting point and travel time to see reachable destinations by train.

URL

Description

This tool helps users visualize train destinations within Europe. When users hover the cursor over a city or a particular train station on the map, Chronotrains unveils a map where concentric zones radiate outward. This depicts all the destinations reachable by train within a chosen duration of up to eight hours.

Using the Map:

Click on the choice of All Trains or Night Trains

Type or click on any train station to set it as your starting point.
Select the amount of time you want to travel (e.g., minimum 1 hour, up to 8 hours maximum).
The map will update to show the areas you can reach within the selected time frame.

As of Dec 2024, the map may sometimes include not just information on the approximate travel time but also the trip's price.

Exploring Options:

- Use the map to explore different travel possibilities. You can move around the map, click on different stations, and see how travel times change.

Key Features:

Interactive Map

Why it matters: This visualization helps users quickly understand the reach of train travel from different locations, which can be useful for trip planning and understanding regional connectivity.

Travel Time Visualization

Why it matters: This feature allows users to easily compare travel times between different locations, helping them make informed decisions.

Data integration

How it works: According to the tool’s , this map integrates data from through .

Possible use cases

While originally used to plan trips, Chronotrains can be repurposed for open-source investigations.

This can aid open-source investigations with a time-sensitive location element.

It can be used to:

Potentially verify travel claims: By entering a location and timeframe, investigators can determine if a reported train travel aligns with what is realistically possible.
Potentially track movement patterns: Analyze potential routes and locations reachable by train within a specific timeframe, helping identify areas a person of interest might have visited.

How does it work?

The platform’s explains the tools' inner workings.

What the Map Shows:

Isochrones: Imagine you start at a specific train station. An isochrone map shows you how far you can travel from that station within a certain amount of time and in multiple directions. For example, it can show all the places you can reach in 1 hour, 2 hours, and so on, heading North, South, East, or West.

How It Works:

1. Building a Graph:

Think of a graph like a map, but instead of just showing locations, it also shows their connections. In this case, the "nodes" (points) on the graph are train stations. The "edges" (lines connecting the nodes) represent the journey times between these stations.

2. Exploring the Graph:

For each station, the system checks which other stations you can get to in a certain amount of time. For example, it might check which stations you can reach from Station A within 1 hour, 2 hours, and so on.

Data Source:

Deutsche Bahn (DB) Data: The information about train times and stations comes from Deutsche Bahn. Deutsche Bahn cooperates routes with different countries' rail systems () and therefore has data on train schedules for (based on 2023 Integrated Report, p.38, p.49). According to DB International Operations’ website, “DB’s regional services do not only operate in Germany, but also across borders and in other European countries, including the UK, Czech Republic, Denmark, the Netherlands, Poland, and Portugal.”

API by Direkt Bahn Guru: This data is made easier to access and use through a tool (API) provided by , which helps organize and provide the data in a convenient format.

Cost

Free
Partially Free
Paid

Level of difficulty

Requirements

Internet connection
Computer or mobile device

Limitations

Data Unavailable for Some Countries

Currently, Chronotrains.com does not seem to provide train data for outgoing journeys from Bosnia and Herzegovina, Albania, and Belarus. However, data is available for neighboring countries, and some connections are displayed. For instance, train stations in Croatia include destinations that extend into Bosnia and Herzegovina, which are then visible on the map.

NOTE: To determine if data is available for a specific location, check the individual train stations represented as dots on the map. Filled dots indicate available data, while empty (white) dots signify the absence of outgoing train information.\

As of January 2025, the map started including some train data in Turkey and Montenegro. Russia still does not have any data available on the tool.

While Ukraine is marked as available on the map, it may be incomplete. Make sure to cross-reference with other neighboring countries’ train data, such as Polrail, and Ukraine’s national railway network, Ukrainian Railways.

Accuracy

Chronotrains.com includes a caveat (Under FAQs). Actual arrival times may not always match. Therefore, it is important to use this platform ony for estimates.

Adding Connections (“Edges”) Between “Closeby Stations” Based on Assumed Walking Speed

According to its , “closeby stations” and “assumed speed” are defined as follows:

Closeby stations: If two stations are close to each other (less than 10 km/6.2 mi apart), the system will add a connection between them, which is then reflected on the map.

Assumed speed: The system also assumes that you can walk/travel between these stations at a speed of 9/km/h (5.59 mph) - which is described as

It is important to note that this speed can vary from person to person and that this is an average estimate. So, whenever examining data on Chronotrains, keep these limitations in mind.

Local Transit Exclusion

The tool does not display options involving connections by local transit methods such as buses, bikes, or walking. The tool provider offers the following explanation on the tool's Github page: "Because local transit is not included for most cities, there are no journeys available between different stations that can actually be connected by bus, bike, or on foot."

Specifically, as mentioned above, if two locations are more than 10 km/6.2 mi apart, it will not display a journey/connection. For instance, if a user wants to go from point A to point D:

a. The train stops at point B and does not go directly to point D.

b. You could take a bus or bike from point B to point C.

c. From point C, you could catch another train to reach point D.

If the distance between Point B and Point C (where the user intends to get a connecting train) is more than 10 km/6.2 mi apart, then it will not appear on the map.

These types of multi-modal journeys, which involve switching from a train to a bus or bike and then back to a train, are not included in the dataset.

Assumed Interchange Time

According to its , when switching from one train to another, the system assumes it takes 20 minutes. Since this can be variable depending on the person or unforeseen transit delays, the data should be taken as an estimate and needs to be cross-checked with other train schedules.

Some Trains May Not Be Reflected on the Map

, shows that certain train connections that should be visible on the map may not appear (to date, the issue described in the post does not seem to occur anymore at that specific location). In addition, there is another reason why some train information is missing. Since Chronotrains also uses data from Direkt Bahn Guru, this GitHub page acknowledges that: Also, according to this page, trains from smaller companies are often not included compared to those from state-owned operators, probably because they don't share data as much.

Data From Deutsche Bahn API Has .

No Single Dataset: Public transport route data in Europe remains fragmented, with no single comprehensive dataset available.

Incomplete Data: According to this , public transport data availability varies across Europe, with some countries lacking entirely.

Regional Data Only: Other countries only provide data by region or by specific transport operators (like in France).

Hard to Combine: Because the data is so scattered and inconsistent, it's difficult to combine it into one complete dataset.

Ethical Considerations

Chronotrains is best used in conjunction with other tools and other sources of information. Ensure transparency, acknowledge limitations, and prioritize obtaining corroborating information through other tools.

Transparency and Disclosure:

As mentioned above, Chronotrains uses data based on pre-scheduled train times and not real-time tracking. It includes this caveat under its section. As mentioned under the “Limitations” section, data are based on the user’s assumed walking speed and assumed duration for changing between trains. These variables can modify the estimates that the map shows. It is, therefore, important to disclose these limitations when using it as a tool for your investigations.

Accuracy:

Chronotrains' data should be treated as an estimate or an investigative lead that needs further verification. While Chronotrains uses established train schedule data, it's important to consider if there could be any bias within that data itself. For instance, if certain routes are less frequently traveled or have less up-to-date scheduling information, this could skew the results generated by Chronotrains.

If less frequently traveled routes are underrepresented, the overall dataset might not accurately reflect precise travel estimates. However, this does not drastically compromise the overall quality and reliability of Chronotrains' data. These travel estimates can still be valuable, particularly when coupled with mitigation strategies such as regularly verifying data from multiple reliable sources, including real-time updates and local transit information.

Guides and articles

A description and demo for the tool, including an interview with the tool provider:

Tool provider

Benjamin Tran Dinh, , France,

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EDGAR

Database of corporate filings for the US

URL

https://www.sec.gov/edgar/search/

Description

EDGAR (Electronic Data Gathering, Analysis, and Retrieval system) is a database of corporate filings maintained by the U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission. These filings contain a wealth of quantitative and qualitative information on every legal entity that issues non-exempt securities in the United States.

EDGAR is the primary system for companies and others to submit documents under the Securities Act of 1933, the Securities Exchange Act of 1934, the Trust Indenture Act of 1939, and the Investment Company Act of 1940.

The EDGAR database provides access to corporate information, allowing research of public companies' financial information and operations. It also includes information provided by mutual funds (including money market funds), exchange-traded funds (ETFs), and variable annuities.

Best uses are to track annual reports, top level management of companies, subsidiaries, shareholders, mergers & acquisitions.

Search by keyword, company name, ticker symbol, location or the name of an individual.

Cost

Free
Partially Free
Paid

Level of difficulty

Requirements

None

Limitations

Users cannot download at once all the documents returned by a text search of the database.
The data only covers publicly traded companies. For every other company not traded on a stock exchange, research has to be done separately in the business divisions of the Secretaries of State.
Owing to shifting data tags, it’s extremely cumbersome to create financial profiles for single companies or to perform comparisons between their respective financial metrics.

See more about these limitations in: George Dyer:, Bellingcat.

According to their own :

Not all documents filed with the Commission by public companies will be available on EDGAR. Companies were phased in to EDGAR filing over a three-year period, ending May 6, 1996. As of that date, all public domestic companies were required to make their filings on EDGAR, except for filings made in paper because of a hardship exemption. Third-party filings with respect to these companies, such as tender offers and Schedules 13D, are also filed on EDGAR.
However, some documents are not yet permitted to be filed electronically, and consequently will not be available on EDGAR. Other documents may be filed on EDGAR voluntarily, and consequently may or may not be available on EDGAR. For example:
Form 144 (notice of proposed sale of securities) may be filed on EDGAR at the option of the filer.

Ethical Considerations

Some filings may contain personal identifiers (names, addresses, signatures). Even though these are public, using them for non-financial purposes (e.g., profiling, marketing, or doxxing) is ethically problematic.

While EDGAR is public, using advanced scraping or automation tools to gain a speed advantage in trading or analysis raises fairness concerns.

Guide

Public company search - type the company’s name or ticker symbol in the search bar . Retrieves filings for a specific company and to find company information — registered name, address, telephone number, state of incorporation, Central Index Key (CIK) number, Standard Industrial Classification (SIC) code, and fiscal year end.

The .xml format is somewhat better, because it contains hyperlinks that lead to every associated document in a specific filing including each submitted SEC form and exhibit. To get to a specific filing in an .xml format, click on any of the hyperlinked results (in blue) in the Form & File column.

Example: Search for Boeing in the search bar, select Boeing Co. Below are the results that show up when you hit the search button. From the Form & File column, click on the 8-K (Current report) or any other filing.

Select Open Document to reach the .htm file or Open filing to reach the .xml file (each option opens a new tab in the browser).

The .xml file will contain different hyperlinks for document and data files. In this example the 8-K file (document ba-20240731.htm iXBRL) links to the full form 8-K filing (known as a “current report” and it is the report that companies must file with the SEC to announce major events that shareholders should know about).

If you want to parse EDGAR data, The Comprehensive R Archive Network have published this PDF guide - .

Alphanome have . The guide is a walk-through for the install and usage of the library for parsing SEC EDGAR HTML documents into semantic elements and trees.

A compilation of SEC guides on how to use EDGAR, accessible .

SEC also have some basic information on how to access their .

Tool provider

, U.S.

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Earth Online

The ESA's Earth Online product offers a portal for accessing satellite imagery and environmental data, supporting a range of applications from climate monitoring to natural disaster assessment.

URL

https://earth.esa.int/eogateway/tools

Description

The European Space Agency's Earth Online (ESA-EO) is a portal dedicated to providing a wealth of information on ESA's Earth observation activities and datasets. It serves as a comprehensive platform for Earth science and environmental monitoring. Users can retrieve up-to-date satellite imagery, open data from specific Earth observation missions, and a range of tools for analysis and interpretation of raw environmental data. Earth Online also shines when it comes to news, visuals and infographics plus detailed mission information and 3D models of the satellites, making it a useful resource for anyone looking to understand the planet's dynamics and changes.

ESA’s EO universe holds something for everyone. It's not only for experts - there’s enough to explore if you’re new to the field.

ESA’s Earth Observation ecosystem is evolving from a collection of isolated, specialised tools toward integrated, cloud-based platforms that combine complete workflows of data discovery, access, processing and analysis in one single environment.

The main components of the ESA Earth Observation platform are:

Mission documentation and data feeding into:
Cloudplatforms Copernicus Data Space Ecosystem (CDSE) and Multi-Mission Algorithm and Analysis Platform (MAAP)
Sentinel Application Platform (SNAP) and other standalone (mostly mission-specific) tools

European Space Agency vs Copernicus - ESA is an intergovernmental European space agency and implementing partner for EU space programmes, and a key-partner in Copernicus. Copernicus is the EU programme providing open satellite data and operational services. ESA designs and operates the satellites that generate the data, both for the EU Copernicus programme and for ESA’s own (research-focused) missions.

ESA Earth Online (ESA EO) vs Copernicus Data Space Ecosystem (CDSE) - The data platforms overlap. The core of (cloud-based) CDSE consists of the Sentinel Data. ESA EO links to CDSE but also offers ESA mission-specific data and tools, plus all mission documentation.

Copernicus Browser vs Copernicus Data Space Ecosystem - The Copernicus Browser is the main visual exploration tool within the Copernicus Data Space Ecosystem and has its own

Missions

ESA EO offers detailed information on the programmes and separate missions:

Earth Explorers: dedicated to specific domains, as the cryosphere, athmosphere etc. See
Heritage Missions: data from over 45 missions, dating back to 1977
Third Party Missions

All mission pages link to extensive mission documentation, datasets and notebooks, research environment or webservices. Data from older, inactive missions is included in the platform to be reused in different contexts. The available datasets can also be filtered by domain and scientific instruments. ESA data and tools may gradually be integrated in one of the cloudplatforms mentioned below.

Copernicus Data Space Ecosystem

The provides wide range of data and services from the Copernicus Sentinel missions and some complementary data. The user-friendly Copernicus browser (see ) is a part of the wider ecosystem. The cloud-based data and processing platform provides data and documentation, with advanced features that include cloud computing, integrated jupyter notebooks, APIs, batch operations, and building workflows with openEO.

is the ESA/Copernicus Sentinal reference site for a broad audience, with interactive views (Sentivista), visual explainers (Sentinel Succes Stories) and technical satellite documentation (SentiWiki). Feeling lost? The (in beta) may lead you to the right sources.

Multi-Mission Algorithm and Analysis Platform (MAAP)

Where CDSE is more focused on browsing, processing and analysing, is oriented toward scientific collaboration, with more focus on computing and advanced research and experimental workflows. The ESA Exploring Earth Catalogue and Thematic Exploitation Platforms (TEPs), previously separate entities in the EO platform and useful in OSINT research, are moving to MAAP.

SNAP

is a desktop software application for analysing and processing Sentinel data. It contains the same Sentinel data as the CDSE and they are often used together. SNAP is available as a local download and designed for working with raw and semi-processed data. A strong point is its radar (SAR) analysis. SNAP has a GUI and can be used without any technical coding skills, but does require some technical understanding of satellite data. The STEP platform (Science Toolbox Exploitation Platform) offers help in the form of practical guides and and an active .

User need

Task/Platform

Skill level

Use Cases for European Space Agency's Earth Online

The European Space Agency's Earth Online portal offers a broad array of use cases. Some of the imagery is super high resolution (less than a meter) however although there are hundreds of datasets many of them require registration and institutional affiliation. There are a number of 'sample' datasets that are free but may not be up to date. Individual tools can be used for multiple use cases. Some of these use cases focus on environment monitoring (tracking changes in climate, land use, and natural habitats over time) others could be used for monitoring more human focused activity. Use cases include:

Agricultural Analysis: Assisting in the monitoring of crop health, forecasting yields, and managing agricultural resources. For instance the provides high resolution 2.5 m resolution crop inventory and monitoring agricultural productivity.
Forest Loss: The tool offers processing scripts and Jupyter Notebooks for monitoring Above Ground Biomass, Forest Height and Forest Disturbance.
Oceanography and Marine Sciences: Supporting the study of ocean currents, sea surface temperatures, and marine ecosystems. Tools like the can monitor ocean ice cover which can impact shipping routes (limited to data between February 2021 up to 2022) and the

The atmosphere: The tool provides that can be used to analyze and visualize atmospheric earth observation data and the contains data that monitors greenhouse gas emissions (currently CH4, but eventually CO2).
Human Activity: The tool requires registration but provides data and visualisation of the Global Urban Footprint and population density. The is a glacier and landslide monitoring tool that has data processed over the eastern Alps Ground Motion Service.
Disaster Monitoring:

These use cases highlight the versatility of the Earth Online portal in supporting a wide range of scientific research, educational, and applied environmental management activities.

Cost

Free
Partially Free
Paid

Level of difficulty

Some of the tools provided require Jupyter Notebook and Python programming experience or a high degree of knowledge about remote sensing and satellite imagery.

Requirements

Web: any modern web browser (individual tools will have specific requirements documented inline)
Desktop: many of the tools provided can be run on a desktop or cloud provider (see the individual tool for further details).

Limitations

Data Availability: While ESA's Earth Online offers extensive datasets, certain historical data or high-resolution imagery is not be readily available due to the limitations of past missions, data retention policies or registration requirements. For instance the only has data available for 2015. See individual dataset for more details. There are a number of 'sample' datasets that are free but may not be up to date.
Learning Curve: New users may find the array of tools and associated interfaces challenging to navigate without prior experience in satellite data analysis or familiarity with similar platforms.
Access Restrictions: Some datasets require specific permissions or qualifications for access, limiting use for certain research or educational purposes. This also applies to tools like: the Food Security Thematic Exploitation Platform (TEP), the Hydrology TEP, and the Forestry TEP all of which require registration and organisational affiliation. See

Guide

The platform acts as a guide to the tools it hosts, the main way of discovering tools is through the search interface: from here filters for the different tool types (Analysis, Processing and Visualisation) can be applied.

The example below shows the default analysis tools search interface:

Tool provider

European Space Agency

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Incomplete Metadata Removal: ExifTool may not fully remove all metadata from certain file types. While it can strip many common fields, some proprietary metadata structures or embedded data might persist. This can leave sensitive information, such as GPS coordinates, camera serial numbers, or user comments, exposed after a “cleaning” attempt. Users who require guaranteed anonymity or privacy must verify that no residual metadata remains.
Limited Support for Some File Formats: While ExifTool is highly versatile, it doesn’t support every existing or emerging file format. Specialized, proprietary, or niche formats may not be fully recognized. As a result, some metadata fields may not be extracted or modified correctly, limiting the tool’s usefulness for cutting-edge devices or obscure media types.
Command-Line Complexity: ExifTool primarily operates through the command line, which can be intimidating for users who lack technical experience. Understanding syntax, parameters, and output formatting takes practice, and beginners may struggle to remember commands or apply them efficiently.
No Native Graphical User Interface (GUI): Without a built-in graphical interface, users must rely on the command line or third-party GUIs. These external interfaces might not support all of ExifTool’s features, potentially limiting functionality and increasing the learning curve for non-technical users.
Risk of Data Loss or Corruption: Incorrectly typed commands or misuse of advanced options can damage files or destroy important metadata. For example, a bulk operation that writes incorrect tags to a set of images could render them unusable. Regular backups and careful testing of commands on sample files can mitigate these risks.
Potential Conflicts with Antivirus Software: Some antivirus tools may flag ExifTool’s operations as suspicious, particularly when it reads or modifies large numbers of files. These false positives can block operations, slow workflows, or require users to adjust security settings.
Cannot Detect Metadata Tampering: While ExifTool can read and write metadata, it cannot confirm whether metadata is authentic. Malicious actors can modify tags to provide misleading information. Users who need to establish authenticity must rely on additional tools or verification methods.
Performance Limitations with Large Files or Datasets: Analyzing huge video files or thousands of photos can be slow and resource-intensive. Large-scale operations may degrade system performance or take significant time to complete, making ExifTool less efficient for handling massive media archives.
Steep Learning Curve for Advanced Features: Basic extraction is straightforward, but leveraging ExifTool’s full capabilities requires a deep understanding of metadata standards and careful reading of documentation.
Not a Comprehensive Forensic Tool: ExifTool is not designed to produce secure, tamper-proof logs or follow strict forensic procedures. Suppose you require chain-of-custody compliance, write-blocking capabilities, or court-admissible evidence handling; you need dedicated digital forensic solutions.
Limited Detection of Hidden or Embedded Data: ExifTool specializes in known metadata fields. It may not detect hidden or steganographically embedded content concealed in unexpected places. Investigators seeking such hidden data must supplement ExifTool with other specialized detection tools.
No Built-in Reporting or Visualization Tools: ExifTool outputs raw text data by default. Users who need graphical summaries, charts, or maps must export the data and rely on third-party software for visualization. This extra step can be inconvenient and time-consuming.
Legal and Ethical Considerations: Modifying or extracting metadata without proper consent can breach privacy laws or terms of use. Handling sensitive information, especially personal data, may be illegal or unethical. Researchers must remain aware of and compliant with relevant regulations.
Metadata Standard Variations: Metadata standards aren’t always implemented consistently. Different cameras, software, and devices may handle metadata fields differently—using unique tags, labels, or formats. This can cause confusion or misinterpretation, as assumptions about one device’s metadata may not hold true for another. As a result, metadata analysis requires careful consideration of each source’s conventions.
Multilingual and Encoding Issues: ExifTool may struggle with files that contain non-UTF-8 text or special characters. Encodings like Shift-JIS (Japanese Text) or ISO-8859-1 (also known as Latin-1, an older, legacy standard designed to cover Western European languages, including common characters like letters with accents such as é or ß) could cause garbled output. This is particularly problematic when analyzing international content or files with older character sets.
No Undo Functionality: Changes made by ExifTool are permanent. If users overwrite crucial metadata or apply the wrong tags to a large set of files, there’s no built-in rollback feature. Careful planning, backups, and test runs are essential to prevent irreversible mistakes.
Limited Support for Encrypted or Password-Protected Files: ExifTool cannot access metadata locked behind encryption or password protection. Users must first unlock or decrypt the file to analyze its metadata, which may be difficult or impossible without proper credentials.
No Real-Time Monitoring: ExifTool does not watch files or directories for metadata changes over time. Users must run commands manually whenever they need updated information, making it unsuitable as a continuous monitoring tool.
Limited Support for Network Locations: Accessing files stored on complex network paths can be problematic. Network latency, permissions, and mounting issues may prevent ExifTool from functioning smoothly, particularly in enterprise environments or remote research scenarios.

Flightradar24

Flightradar24, a real-time flight tracking service, that provides comprehensive information about aircraft positions, flight numbers, routes, historical data, detailed aircraft specifications.

URL

Description

Flightradar24 is a real-time global flight tracking service. It provides detailed information about aircraft position, flight number, and oftentimes flight origin and destination. It also includes details on the type of aircraft. It provides both real-time flight tracking and historical flight information.

Flightradar24 data can be used for open-source investigations, including but not limited to:

support real-time news analysis, such as in the case of ;
monitor the movement of as potential illicit assets;
probe/scrutinize transit/travel patterns of (see examples , and );

TIP: Finding plane information requires a multi-source approach. Check more than one flight-tracking website when doing research “since one might have more information than the others,” according to to flight tracking. recommends starting your investigation with an initial data gathering or a Google search to see everything you can find about a plane of interest (see paragraph 6 under “").

Flightradar24‘s flight information comes from several data sources. One category of data called “positional data” triangulates the aircraft's position in the sky. This includes sources In addition to positional data, Flightradar24 also uses flight status and flight schedule data from . The platform uses data through the for drones, gliders, and small aircraft.

On the filter section of the website, the tool can filter for approximately 12 aircraft categories. They are: Passenger, Cargo, Military and government, Business jets, General aviation, Helicopter, lighter-than-air, Gliders, Drones, Ground vehicles, "Other", and Non-categorized.

But First, Identifiers and Where to Find Them

When doing flight tracking for investigations, it is essential to know what data to look for and which information can potentially provide leads. In flight-tracking, researchers usually pay attention to “Identifiers.”

Flight-tracking websites have a plethora of information available. However, depending on the research question, researchers generally pay attention to call signs, registration, serial numbers, and hex codes.

TIP: Note that not all identifiers may be immediately available on one flight tracking website. Cross-check with other platforms.

CALL SIGN

CALL SIGN: What is it and why is it important? (CLICK TO EXPAND)

What is it? They are unique identifiers of an aircraft. They help differentiate each aircraft in the sky from one another. According to this Bellingcat, private aircraft often use their registration number as their call sign. In contrast, commercial flights usually have call signs based on their specific routes.

According to this GIJN, “The call sign is more or less whatever the pilot decided to enter for that flight.” Commercial flights, on the other hand, will be the flight number or close to it, like DAL307 for Delta Airlines flight 307 from Honolulu to Minneapolis.

Call signs also often vary with each flight, and occasionally, they may change even while in the air. For instance, an aircraft might have different call signs throughout the day if it completes several trips,

Where can I find the call sign on Flightradar24?

For live flights:

Depending on your settings, call signs can be seen when you hover your cursor over a plane of interest in the live map. The combination of numbers and letters that appear is usually the call sign. Users can find additional details when clicking on the aircraft.

For completed/historical flights:

Determine the aircraft by either flight number, flight route, or other identifiers, if known.
Go to the search bar and enter the search term. This will lead users to a list of past and future-scheduled flights.
Select the date and time of interest, and click on the icon “PLAY” on the far right. This will take you to the details and stats associated with that particular flight.

REGISTRATION NUMBER / TAIL NUMBER

REGISTRATION NUMBER/TAIL NUMBER/N-NUMBER: What is it? Why is it important? (CLICK TO EXPAND)

What is it? This number appears on the aircraft's exterior, mostly near This is sometimes called a It is a unique number that tells you which country the aircraft. This specifies that an aircraft's registration is similar to a car's license plate, assigned when registered in a specific country. This registration reflects the jurisdiction of the aircraft according to this.

Why is it important? If available, registration information can help find clues about ownership of the aircraft or, at the very least, which country it is registered. However, there are a few caveats:

Where can I find the registration number on Flightradar24?

For live flights

Just like call signs, registration information is available by clicking on an aircraft of interest on the live map. This will provide a detailed window to the left, showing additional information. The registration number can be found just below the aircraft type.

For historical flights

Follow the same steps shown above for searching call signs for historical flights. Begin with entering the flight in question on the search bar. The registration is located on the far right, just below the aircraft type and the aircraft photo.

HEX CODE/ ICAO CODE

HEX CODE/24-BIT CODE ADDRESS/MODE-S NUMBER: What is it? Why is it important? (CLICK TO EXPAND)

What is it? This code serves as a digital identifier or a unique “digital fingerprint”, allowing air traffic control, anti-collision systems, and flight tracking systems to distinguish one aircraft from another. When the plane is registered, it gets a unique electronic code. This hex code is associated with the plane’s ADS-B (Automatic Dependent Surveillance-Broadcast), which broadcasts unencrypted data about the plane’s position, altitude, and speed. If the N-number is the physical identifier, like a car license plate, the hex code is its digital non-physical identifier.

According to document, ICAO assigns each country a block range of hex codes. So in theory, if the flight tracking website sees a hex code in this range, it will identify the aircraft as coming from that country, and, as in the case of FlightAware, display

Where can I find the hex code on Flightradar24?

On Flightradar24, the hex code is referred to as either “ICAO 24-Bit Address” or “”Mode-S”. And you can find it in several places depending on where you are accessing the aircraft information on the website.

For live flights

Users can search the live map for the aircraft of interest. Hover and click over that aircraft, and an information box will appear on the left. Scroll further down to and find “ICAO 24-Bit Address”.

For historical flights

If available, use the registration number to search for the flight of interest in the search bar. This will lead users to a list of past and future-scheduled flights.
Click the choice under “aircraft”. This will take you to a separate page containing the flight history of the aircraft of interest.
Look for the word “Mode-S” to get the hex code (Refer to the image below)

SERIAL NUMBER/ MSN

SERIAL NUMBER/ MANUFACTURER SERIAL NUMBER (MSN): What is it? Why is it important? (CLICK TO EXPAND)

What is it? A serial number is a unique code given to an aircraft by the manufacturer to identify it from other planes. It's like a fingerprint for that specific aircraft designated at the time of manufacture or Serial numbers never change, unlike call signs and registration numbers. It is mandated by law (see, section 14.13) to collectively ensure that aircraft can be monitored, maintained, and operated safely throughout their service life.

Why is it important? states that “If you’re trying to track a plane over multiple years and ownership changes, you’ll need to know the manufacturer’s serial number.” Because an aircraft’s serial numbers don’t change, you can follow its journey. This makes it helpful in tracking a plane over time between.

Where can I find the MSN/Serial Number on Flightradar24?

For live flights

Just like call signs, registration information is available by clicking on an aircraft of interest on the live map. This will provide a detailed window to the left, showing additional information. Scroll further; the serial number is below the registration information (see IMAGE 2 above).

For historical flights

Follow the same steps as shown above for searching for call signs for historical flights. Begin with entering the flight in question in the search bar. The serial number is located on the gray box, far right, just below the registration information (see IMAGE 3 above).

Key Features

Live Map and Immediately Accessible Flight Filters

Flightradar24’s landing page prominently features its Live Map, providing users with immediate access to the real-time aircraft status in the air. The flight filter settings are accessible from the main page, allowing users to customize their view and quickly find relevant information.

The Live Map on Flightradar24 is also customizable, allowing users to add widgets for quick access to important information. These widgets can display data such as weather conditions, statistics (e.g., the number of data sources feeding flight information), and the most tracked live flights. Additionally, users can create personalized widgets to bookmark and monitor specific aircraft, flights, airports, or locations of interest. Open source investigators can use those features to track relevant flight data, monitor specific patterns, and quickly access real-time information critical for their analysis.

Map Layers and Aeronautical Charts

Users can customize the map layers on Flightradar24's Live Map, allowing for the overlay of various data sets.

Advanced Search

The search bar is immediately accessible on the tool's landing page. Flightradar24’s search function has features designed to help users quickly find information on a platform that contains a lot of information. Note that search results usually show both live flights and flights that are completed or recently scheduled. Here is an overview of the search feature, which includes input and output (this list is not exhaustive).

NOTE: Based on our own tests, the search bar takes most of the input explained below, except for Serial Number.

INPUT:

The search is designed to run several keyword variations. Users can enter the ICAO Airport Code and the IATA Airport Code. Users can enter two airport codes separated by a dash.

Example: “AMS - LHR” to refer to the flight route from Amsterdam Schipol to Heathrow Airport.

OUTPUT:

This search will show all the live flights as well as recent and scheduled flights.

INPUT:

If the airport code is unknown, simply type the location or the airport name.

For a more detailed guide to its search features, refer to:

Custom Filters

In addition to filtering by aircraft category, users can create their own custom filters tailored to their research purpose.

OPEN each tab to get more detailed information on how to create custom filters.

Flightradar24 has enhanced its aircraft filtering capabilities. You can now precisely filter flights by their exact ICAO code.

For example: Searching for "A320" will only display Airbus A320 models.

To view a family of aircraft, use a wildcard symbol.

For example: "B737*" will show all Boeing 737 variants. Additionally, you can filter for multiple aircraft types by separating them with commas.

This refined filtering system allows for more accurate and tailored flight tracking.

Users can input the airport code or airport name.

Jetphotos Database

Another helpful feature in this tool is its photo database through When viewing an aircraft's details on Flightradar24, users often see photos sourced from Jetphotos. Jetphotos links back to Flightradar24 for detailed tracking data about photographed aircraft.

This integration provides a visual representation of the tracked aircraft, enhancing the user experience. More importantly, the photos shown are those of the actual plane being tracked live in the sky and not a similar aircraft type, like on . This is especially helpful if researchers are interested in making a visual match to the information they have.

Example: If a user is tracking an aircraft with registration/tail number OO-TMS, users can find that exact photo on Jetphotos' database by using the registration number/tail number as the search term.

Jetphotos and Flightradar24 are distinct platforms with complementary purposes, but they share a close relationship due to their focus on aviation and.

Playback

Flightradar24's playback feature is like a time machine for aviation. Flightradar24's playback feature allows users to rewind time and analyze historical flight data. This tool can be invaluable for investigative purposes, as it enables researchers to:

(a) Investigate Past Events: Examine air traffic patterns during specific incidents or events. (b) Verify/Cross-Check Claims: Cross-reference historical flight data with other information to confirm or refute claims. (c) Seeing Trends: Study trends by analyzing past flight patterns.

The playback feature is available on the live map (landing page) and users can see the replay of many flights simultaneously. It is also available for individual flights.

Historical data available for playback are as follows: ; includes playback feature for historical analysis.

TIP: Add a filter or your own custom filter and use the playback feature for a more granular search. For example: Use the business jet category filter and hit the playback button to see a replay of all business jets travelling in a specific area during a specific time frame.

For individual flights, the playback feature is accessible by first searching the flight of interest. And then scrolling through the past scheduled flights. Select the time and date of interest and click on “Play” (the farthest icon to the right).

KML and CSV File of Flight Log

For flights that have already landed, Flightradar24 allows users to download a KML file of the flight log. This will contain all the coordinates of its flight path, the altitude, and other information that helps users visualize flight information. Based on our test, this raw data can then be imported on , , or ArcGIS Earth.

In addition, users can also download a .CSV containing raw flight data for analysis.

To do this, enter the known flight info on the search bar and click on the flight number/call sign/route.
Scroll down and click on “Flight Info”.
You will be taken to a different page containing the flight log. Scroll down to the list of recently scheduled flights, choose the date and time of interest.

Using a KML file of a flight log overlaid over Google Earth Pro can sometimes help with geolocation tasks. See this by Nixintel for a demonstration of this use case.

Use cases

Flight tracking websites like Flightradar24 can be valuable resources for investigative journalism and open-source research:

1. Database Creation:

This data can be used to create open-source flight databases for countries requiring continuous monitoring.
Example: Bellingcat's databases for and .

2. Monitoring Authoritarian Regimes:

Tools like specialize in monitoring the flight paths of authoritarian regimes' aircraft.
They can alert the public when these planes land in specific locations (e.g., Twitter/X alerts for major European cities).

3. Investigating Aircraft Ownership and Movement:

Investigators like those at :
- Identification: Determine which planes are owned or regularly used by individuals of interest.
- Tracking: Follow flight histories or pinpoint the current whereabouts of these aircraft.

Challenges and Workarounds:

Ownership Obfuscation: Figuring out real ownership can be .
Flight tracking as a tool to generate leads: According to , while ownership is sometimes hidden, flight tracking data is largely publicly available, and monitoring aircraft movements can sometimes provide valuable clues to fill in the gaps of an investigation.

Cost

Free
Partially Free
Paid

The tiered paid accounts are: Basic Free, Silver, Gold, Business, the price and feature differences are found here:

The version tested for this toolkit description is the Gold Subscription.

Level of difficulty

While the tool is straightforward to use, the difficulty rating is based on the additional time it may take for beginner users to familiarize themselves with aviation related terms and concepts. The platform also contains a plethora of data, and finding which information is important may require additional time.

Requirements

Modern web browser
Registered account (e-mail address)

Limitations

Flightradar24 Mobile App and Precise Location Data Leak

Investigations by revealed thatthat transmit their users' to data brokers. These precise coordinates may provide sensitive personal information on a user's home or work address

Be aware of the risks of disclosing your location data using the app. Use precaution if possible.

Coverage: Not Everywhere, Every Time

Flightradar24 is a great tool for tracking flights, but it's important to know it doesn't see everything, everywhere. Here's what can affect coverage:

Aircraft Equipment: Not all planes have compatible transponders, the devices that talk to Flightradar24. So, .
Altitude and Terrain: Planes flying high or in areas with lots of mountains .
Location: Flightradar24 , especially around major airports in Africa (Chad, Congo, Egypt, etc) or countries like China, Iran, Iraq, and Libya.

Map Gaps

Flightradar24's coverage is. Geopolitical tensions, like the Ukraine conflict, can lead to airspace closures, affecting flight routes. Geographical factors, such as high altitudes in Tibet, also restrict flight paths. Not all aircraft have the necessary equipment for tracking, and some regions have limited coverage. Additionally, airlines prioritize safety and efficiency, sometimes opting for longer routes to avoid risky areas.

Blocking / “take down requests”

Flightradar24 from operators or owners. According to : “Information about a small number of flights may be limited or blocked based on requests from owners or operators via third-party services…”. This also means that high-profile aircraft in the military and government categories will not be visible.

Based on our own tests, some of the instances where blocking might potentially happen are as follows. There are instances where:

Aircraft Identity is hidden: The specific aircraft model and registration number might be obscured, showing only the general aircraft type (e.g., Boeing 737).
Flight Path is partially hidden: The origin and registration number might be visible, but the destination or specific route may be blocked.
Sometimes, the platform puts N/A instead of providing information.

While combining filters may sometimes be helpful, there are some combinations that provide results that are confusing. It is important to note that combining these two filters has some limitations. Based on our tests, combining the filter “military and governments” plus a custom airport filter for “Venezuela” and “Colombia” gave mixed results. Instead of filtering for only military/government aircraft in those countries, the results included passenger flights, private/small aircraft, and possibly others.

To isolate a specific category of aircraft within a location of interest, it is recommended to zoom in instead on the area of interest, then apply a specific aircraft filter. We were able to tailor the search results by zooming in on Venezuela and Colombia and applying the “military and government” filter subsequently. The results seem to show only one category of aircraft within a specific geographic region.

6. Accuracy of estimates

Flightradar24 can estimate the position of aircraft that are out of coverage for a limited time. This is done by using various parameters, but the accuracy can decrease for flights that fly over longer distances (the position can be shown ). The estimated positions are visually represented by a black trail on the map.

7. Incorrect flight route

Flightradar24 uses flight schedules to determine the route an aircraft is taking. However, this can sometimes lead to inaccuracies. For example, if a, the displayed path might not match the actual flight path. Additionally, errors in flight schedules or incorrect or old call signs can also cause route information to be incorrect. Other causes are: - which is when there is an error in one of the scheduling databases Flightradar24 depends on. In addition, significant flight delays can cause it to be matched with the wrong schedule.

Ethical Considerations

Privacy vs. Transparency:

The ethical dilemma here revolves around the conflict between public transparency and individual privacy. Make careful determinations about how to publish research that involves tracking patterns of individuals. This, for example, highlights the tension between the right to information and the potential consequences of exposing individuals to danger.

Context matters:

Consider the purpose behind using flight tracking data when publishing. Not all uses of aviation tracking serve the same ethical goals or carry the same implications. For instance, when flight tracking data is used to cover major events such as accidents or disasters, it provides factual context for the public's understanding of the event. Flight tracking data used in research regarding air traffic patterns, for example, or in monitoring the environmental impact of the aviation industry, represents different ethical considerations than tracking specific individuals' movements. The ethical decision-making around flight data publication and how to publish this data should take into consideration the intended audience, potential harm, if any, and whether or not there are alternative data sources available for your investigation.

Respect Copyright:

Flight tracking websites often have terms of service regarding the use of data. Ensure you're using the information ethically and keep the website's guidelines in mind. Flightradar24's terms of service can be found .

Comparison with Other Flight Tracking Tools

While both Flightradar24 and FlightAware offer similar core functionality, open-source investigators may prefer to use Flightradar24 for a more extended flight history, a playback function, the ability to track more specialized aircraft, and comprehensive international flight data. However, FlightAware can sometimes have some advantages for US-focused flight tracking.

Based on our tests, the following is a comparison of some key features of various flight tracking tools.

Feature

FlightAware

Flightradar24

Guide

Bellingcat Guide:

Fiorella, Giancarlo, (2019, October 15). , Bellingcat.

RC and Fiorella, Giancarlo (2021, March 11). , Bellingcat.

GIJN Guide:

Global Investigative Journalism Network. (n.d.). .

Global Investigative Journalism Conference 2023, (2023, October 7). Video on .

OCCRP Guide:

Organized Crime and Corruption Reporting Project (2022, May 21). Russian Asset Tracker.

IATA (International Air Transport Association) which can help researchers decipher airline codes on particular call signs.

Nixintel (2019, October 30). .

Benjamin Strick. (Youtube video).

Benjamin Strick. Who Made The Man in The Desert? or

Al Jazeera Guide:.

Full list of country identifiers:

Some lists of public registries:,, and,,

Photos:,

Twitter hashtags:,,,, and.

This tool is often used with: , , social media accounts of known flight enthusiasts and professionals. This tool is also used in conjunction with ADS-B Exchange, , Planes.live, JetPhotos, Airframes.

Tool provider

Flightradar24 AB, Sweden

Advertising Trackers

This tool has not been checked for advertising trackers yet.
This tool uses tracking cookies. Use with caution.
This tool does not appear to use tracking cookies.

Page maintainer

Gaode Maps

Gaode Maps (also known as AMap) is a mapping application and technology from the Chinese company Alibaba.

URL

Main site: www.amap.com, or www.gaode.com

API docs: lbs.amap.com/api

Description

Gaode Maps offers maps, satellite imagery, directions (for driving, public transport, and walking), and real-time augmented reality navigation for driving. It is available via the web browser or as a mobile application. (The app was previously known as AutoNavi, and is currently named AMap outside China.) A few highlights:

Global data: Maps, directions and recommended transport data are available globally, though the data are most detailed for China.
Mobile app "AMap Global" available in English: The English mobile app offers basic functions including map search, satellite imagery and directions in China. (Other functionalities may be limited.)
Notably, Gaode Maps does not offer street view.

As for all Chinese mapping tools, satellite imagery is provided by China Siwei Surveying & Mapping Technology, which uses data and imagery from DigitalGlobe, the US company. Gaode Maps for iOS and Android users in China

Gaode Maps is a to Apple Maps. The Apple Maps app automatically switches to using Gaode Maps data (e.g., when global iPhone users travel from overseas to mainland China, or when the iPhone is bought in China).
In many Android phone models sold in China, Gaode Maps is pre-installed instead of Google Maps.

Unless specified, all functions described on this page can be accessed without registering for an account.

ⓘ Troubleshooting: If you downloaded the app in Chinese, and need to change the language to English

Select the user icon (indicated by the blue arrow).
Select the settings icon.

Basic search

After searching in or Chinese characters, select the layer or function.

Select layers - English annotations

Here are the layers and functions, annotated in English. Your view may be different depending on your country. Web browser toolbar

Mobile view

On the web browser view, a reference number is shown at the bottom left, e.g., GS(2025)1234. The year refers to when the map was approved for publication by China's State Bureau of Surveying and Mapping.

(According to Article 15 of the , all maps for public dissemination must be approved by the relevant government body. for maps of tourist destinations and metro lines.)

No street view available

Gaode Maps does not offer street view (the function was removed several years ago), making the tool less directly useful for geolocation.

The "wonder" 奇境 function (aerial photos in select locations)

In the mobile app, a function called 奇境 (translates as "wonder", pinyin: qijing) is available for select locations, usually scenic places such as parks and tourist sites. The function allows users to view the location during different times of day, weather conditions, or seasons.

Worldwide coverage

The app provides global data for over 200 countries, including street maps, route navigation (driving, public transportation, or walking) and business locations. Here's an example:

Business owners from any country could add their locations and information onto AMap (for instance, to attract Chinese travellers who may visit their countries).

Getting coordinates

Within AMap, if you search for a specific location, the coordinates are shown in the URL, in longitude-latitude format.

For background: China uses a coordinate system called (colloquially known as Mars coordinates), whereas the rest of the world uses (Earth coordinates). GCJ-02 uses an encryption algorithm to apply random offsets to the latitude and longitude of locations. Obfuscating the geographic data is for .

If you use Google Maps, the coordinates you obtain for China are already in the GCJ-02 system, though in latitude-longitude format. Please note that in Chinese mapping tools, coordinates are shown with longitude first. To search for a location in Gaode Maps using coordinates, go to , select the option to search by coordinates, and enter the coordinates in longitude-latitude format.

3D maps

API documentation for and are available. (Enter coordinates in the code template to see the 3D map of the location you're searching for.)

User generated reviews

User-generated reviews are available in the mobile app only, without account login.

Using AMap in English (mobile app only)

The English version is only available as mobile app. In your app store, search "AMap Global", download and install.

Functions not available in the English mobile app:

Map data from outside of China
User-generated reviews and photos originally posted in Chinese

Similar tools

Gaode Maps, using the international branding "AMap", is the only Chinese mapping tool that offers a full English language interface in its mobile version. In comparison, provides maps globally in its Chinese interface, whereas provides only maps for China.

Gaode Maps does not offer street view imagery. Instead, researchers can see Baidu Maps for a more comprehensive set of street view images, and check Tencent Maps for images from roughly 5 to 7 years prior. Resulting from a , older street view imagery captured by SOSO Maps (now defunct mapping tool) was integrated into Tencent Maps.

Cost

Free
Partially Free
Paid

Level of difficulty

Requirements

Web: any modern web browser
Mobile: iOS or Android (or HarmonyOS). Globally available. User accounts can be set up with international phone numbers.
API: Individuals must , including providing their ID and Alipay account. Individual developer accounts can only be used for educational or nonprofit purposes, and not for commercial purposes. This is strictly enforced. If claiming educational or nonprofit status, users may be asked to provide government-approved supporting documents.

Limitations

No street view
Language barrier: In the web version, the user interface is only available in Chinese.
Barriers accessing the API. Although not explicitly stated in , non-Chinese citizens and companies may have difficulty setting up a developer account due to requirements of identification and/or supporting documents.

Ethical Considerations

See the Bellingcat toolkit's page for some general caveats when working with maps and satellite imagery, including a general discussion on censorship and content control.
Gaode Maps (as seen in its former name AutoNavi) needed to . Such surveying and mapping data are in China.
Privacy Concerns: Like many mapping services, Gaode Maps gathers user data, raising concerns about user privacy. (An named all leading Chinese mapping tools among 33 apps for extensively collecting user data, beyond what is relevant to their service provision.)

Tool provider

Alibaba Group - China

Advertising Trackers

This tool has not been checked for advertising trackers yet.
This tool uses tracking cookies. Use with caution.
This tool does not appear to use tracking cookies.

Page maintainer

FlightAware

FlightAware is a global flight-tracking platform that provides real-time data on aircraft movements. It offers live tracking, historical data, and predictive analytics via its website and apps.

URL

Description

FlightAware is a global aviation tracking service that collects real-time flight information, including flight paths, statuses, and historical data. It works by gathering data from various sources, such . Key features include live flight tracking, airport information, aircraft information, and alerts for delays or cancellations.

TIP: Finding plane information requires a multi-source approach. Check more than one flight-tracking website when doing research, “since one might have more information than the others”, as Giancarlo Fiorella wrote in his . Another tip by is to start your investigation with a Google search to see what you can find about a plane of interest.

NOTE: FlightAware is useful for tracking the following types of flights (see a list of flight types in the filtering options box on the right-hand side above the ): commercial flights,

If you want to see a breakdown of where the flight data is coming from, FlightAware provides it in .

When used for open-source investigations, flight-tracking websites like FlightAware can assist in:

, such as
of high-profile individuals (see examples , and )

Key Features

SEARCH TAB

Depending on what information a researcher already has, he/she can go to the main search tab. One can enter (See detailed description below).

LIVE MAP

In the tool’s , below the search bar, users can see a live tracking map which claims to show real-time traffic worldwide. Refer to the table below to see how users can get information on the live map:

Search by aircraft: Hover or click on any aircraft

Hovering over an aircraft will give a quick overview of:

aircraft call sign
its altitude
its route using airport codes (i.e. MNL - AUH - meaning from Manila International Airport (MNL) to Abu Dhabi International Airport (AUH) )

Clicking on an aircraft : This will take you to a dedicated page for that flight with all the necessary flight information and aircraft information (as described below).

Clicking on an airport (represented by dots and a three-letter airport code): This will take the user to the airport page where users can find to and from the airport:

GREEN - outgoing commercial flights
BLUE - incoming commercial flights
WHITE - flights passing through the airspace with different airport destinations and different airports of departure

In addition, users can flip through the different tabs for weather information, maps and diagrams.

Filter Live Map Flights: On the live map, users can also filter all worldwide flights according to Altitude, Speed, Flight Type, and Aircraft Type by clicking on the icon to the right, underneath the layers map. \

VIEWING RESULTS

FlightAware will display a list of matching flight/s. The information available is grouped into two main sections: Flight information and Aircraft Information. In addition, a live map with the flight in question is available at the lower left of the webpage.

Flight Details

Aircraft Details

PHOTOS

FlightAware also offers a photo gallery, organized by aircraft type. There are two ways to search for photos.

Community Page

First, click on the URL, hover over the “Community” link on the top right, and then click on the Photos section. Browse through the gallery or filter by aircraft, airport, airline, and date. More importantly, if you have a tail number or registration number available, you can input this on the Search bar at the bottom right to see if there is a match.

Aircraft Details Page

When you click on a particular flight, the full, detailed page will load (See the image in the “Viewing Results” section above) and navigate to the bottom right of the page.

KML OF FLIGHT LOG FOR CERTAIN GEOLOCATION TASKS

Lastly, for flights that have already landed or are completed, FlightAware allows users to download a KML file of the flight log. This will contain all the coordinates of its flight path, altitude, and other information that helps users visualize it. To do this, click on the flight page of a flight in question, and click on “View track log”. Then navigate to the upper left corner of the page and click the “+ Google Earth” icon, as shown below.

NOTE: Remember that historical information is limited for the free account, so flight log information may not always be available.

This can be helpful for specific geolocation tasks, especially for images with contrails or airplanes in the background. If there is flight information in a geolocation task, KML files overlaid on Google Earth Pro can help plot the course location and narrow down the search area based on the flight path.

Here is an example of a using a flight log KML file overlaid over Google Earth Pro, in addition to using the.

Use case

First, flight-tracking websites like FlightAware not only assist with geolocation but also help create flight databases for countries with issues that require continuous monitoring. For instance, Bellingcat has created an open-source flight database for and .

Second, investigators who monitor aircraft, focus on two key tasks:

Determining which planes are owned or regularly utilized by individuals of interest.
Following their flight histories or pinpointing their current whereabouts.

However, as pointed out in OCCRP's , figuring out who really owns a plane is often the more challenging part because people often hide ownership through shell companies and other methods to keep it secret. But because flight tracking is mostly publicly available, the second option can be a useful method for receiving clues to fill the information.

See this website: . It is a project that monitors the flight paths of authoritarian regimes' aircraft and alerts people on Twitter when these planes land in major European cities.

Identifiers and Where to Find Them on FlightAware

When doing flight tracking for investigations, it is essential to know what data to look for and which information can potentially provide leads in an investigation. However, note that not all information may be immediately available on one flight tracking website. Expand each identifier below to see what it is, why it is important and where to find it in the tool.

CALL SIGN: What is it? Why is it important? (CLICK TO EXPAND)

Where can you find the call sign on FlightAware?

The call sign is usually located primarily in two places. If looking at the flight map (left image), hover over the airplane you are interested in, and the flight and aircraft information appears. The call sign is highlighted with a yellow box. If looking at the flight data page (right image), the call sign is immediately to the right of the airliner’s logo (highlighted in the red square).

REGISTRATION NUMBER/ TAIL NUMBER/ / N-NUMBER: What is it? Why is it important? (CLICK TO EXPAND)

What is it? This number appears near This is sometimes called a It is a unique number that tells you which country the aircraft . This specifies that an aircraft's registration is similar to a car's license plate, assigned when registered in a specific country. This registration reflects the jurisdiction of the aircraft according to this .

Why is it important? If available, registration information can be helpful for finding clues about the ownership of the aircraft. However, there are a few caveats:

1: (Ultimate Beneficial Owner - the person who profits or benefits from a corporate entity). It is rarely an individual but a company, trust, or charter/leasing company. In these cases, use additional sources to make the link.

Where can you find the registration number on FlightAware?

The registration number can be found on the flight summary page, if available. And in the aircraft details section, as shown below. Clicking on the “Registration” link will take you to a separate page with more detailed registration information, registration history, and transfer of ownership.

NOTE #1: Based on our tests, this registration information seems only available for most commercial airlines, some MEDEVAC flights, some general aviation flights, and some cargo flights.

NOTE #2: According to the , “FlightAware is currently only able to display limited information for aircraft that is not identified with a United States “N-Number” (e.g., N123AB)”

HEX CODE/ MODE-S CODE/ ICAO CODE: What is it? Why is it important? (CLICK TO EXPAND)

What is it? A hex code is a unique ICAO (International Civil Aviation Organization) six-digit hexadecimal number assigned to an aircraft's transponder. This code serves as a digital identifier or a unique “digital fingerprint”, allowing air traffic control and flight tracking systems to distinguish one aircraft from another. When the plane is registered, it gets a unique electronic code. This hex code is associated with the plane’s ADS-B (Automatic Dependent Surveillance-Broadcast), which broadcasts unencrypted data about the plane’s position, altitude, and speed. If the N-number is the physical identifier like a car license plate, the hex code is its digital counterpart.

According to , ICAO assigns each country a . So in theory, if the flight tracking website sees a hex code in this range, it will identify the aircraft as coming from that country, and, as in FlightAware,

Where can you find the hex code on FlightAware?

On FlightAware, the hex code is referred to as “Mode S Code”

What’s required: Users can find the hex code on FlightAware if they have registration information or the tail number. Search for an aircraft of interest and click on the Registration link as shown above. On the registration page, find the “Mode S Code” at the bottom of the left column.

NOTE: This website responds to for specific aircraft for privacy reasons. But if available, registration info, hex code, and tail number can be obtained with a paid tier subscription. (Users may need to look at other flight tracking websites such as Radarbox to get some of this information)

SERIAL NUMBER/ MANUFACTURER SERIAL NUMBER (MSN): What is it? Why is it important? (CLICK TO EXPAND)

Definition: A serial number is a unique code given to an aircraft by the manufacturer to identify it from other planes. It's like a fingerprint for that specific aircraft designated at the time of manufacture or Serial numbers never change, unlike call signs and registration numbers. It is mandated by law (See , Section 14.13) to collectively ensure that aircraft can be monitored, maintained, and operated safely throughout their service life.

When to use serial numbers for open-source investigations: states that “If you’re trying to track a plane over multiple years and ownership changes, you’ll need to know the manufacturer’s serial number.” Because an aircraft’s serial numbers don’t change, you can follow its journey. This makes it helpful in tracking a plane over time between .

Where can you find the MSN/Serial Number on FlightAware?

This tool uses the term "Serial Number" instead of MSN. The serial number can be found on the registration page of the aircraft. Navigate to the page as shown above (See section for registration/tail number). Find the right column under “Aircraft Summary.” The serial number is found on the fourth line.

Cost

Free
Partially Free
Paid

Information on pricing can be found .

The different paid tiers are:

Features*

Enterprise WX

Enterprise

Premium +

Basic

Level of difficulty

Requirements

Create an user account using an email account or via an already existing Google account or Apple account.
Paid subscription, if interested in historical flights and more flights with tail number and registration information (at the moment, not all aircraft have these identifiers available with a free account).

Limitations

Filtering and Categorization

Limited Filtering: FlightAware does not allow filtering flights based on specific categories on the live map, making it difficult to focus on particular aircraft or routes.
Insufficient Categories: The available flight categories are limited, especially regarding military aircraft, which can hinder investigations into military aviation activities. Although in theory, one can find a military aircraft on the live map and through the search bar, or by knowing ahead of time which call signs may be related to military or government aircraft. However, if this is a consideration for researchers, websites like may be able to help users by filtering for various categories, including .

Visual Representation

Visual crowding: The density of flight icons on the live map can sometimes hinder the ability to easily identify and track specific aircraft. The live map may experience visual crowding from the number of flight icons, making it difficult to focus on individual aircraft.
Unrepresentative Icons: The icons on the live map may not accurately reflect the actual aircraft types, which can delay access to or retrieval of the data you are interested in. In contrast to websites like Flightradar24, different icons show different aircraft types at first glance. Navigating through this amount of information may be an issue for some researchers.
Photo Matching - If photos are used for verification, matching can be a slightly longer process on FlightAware. Aircraft photos refer to similar aircraft types (Boeing 777 or Airbus A380, etc) instead of the exact airplane in the air that the user is currently tracking. To find the right aircraft in the gallery, users need to know the tail number from a different source and put it in the search bar. It may save researchers time by going to Flightradar24 or ADS-B Exchange and other sites to do a photo match since the photo on its flight page corresponds to the actual aircraft of interest instead of a type.

Data Limitations

Limited Historical Data: As mentioned above, the “Basic” FlightAware subscription provides access to a limited amount of historical flight data, which can be insufficient for in-depth analysis or investigations requiring long time frames.
No Playback Option: The live map does not offer a playback option, preventing users from reviewing past flight activity. Playback options can be helpful when researchers only have vague leads about a flight (for example, I know there was a flight 7 days ago in Rio de Janeiro Santos Dumont airport”. It is often helpful to monitor that airport and do playback for flights within a specific time frame.)
Data Blocks: Due to screen real estate limitations and the vast amount of flight data, not all information can be displayed on the live map, leading to data blocks or omissions. The search bar is the way to find flight information on FlightAware.

Privacy and Data Restrictions

Take-Down Requests: As mentioned above, FlightAware may comply with take-down requests from aircraft owners seeking to protect their privacy, resulting in the removal of flight data. Hence, not all registration information is available. Flightradar24 and ADS-B Exchange and will contain more registration information than FlightAware.
Limited Registration Data: As mentioned above, under Identifiers and Registration numbers, FlightAware primarily displays US registration numbers for aircraft, limiting its ability to track international flights or planes with non-US registrations.

Ethical Considerations

Privacy vs. Transparency:

The ethical dilemma here revolves around the conflict between public transparency and individual privacy. Make careful determinations about how to publish research that involves tracking individuals' patterns. This , for example, highlights the tension between the right to information and the potential consequences of exposing individuals to danger.

Context matters:

Consider the purpose behind using flight tracking data when publishing.

Respect Copyright:

Flight tracking websites often have terms of service regarding data usage. Ensure you're using the information ethically and within the website's guidelines (FlightAware ).

Comparison with Other Flight Tracking Tools

Based on our tests, below is a comparison of some of the features of different flight tracking tools.

Feature

FlightAware

Flightradar24

Guides and articles

Bellingcat Guide:

Fiorella, Giancarlo, (2019, October 15). A beginner's guide to flight tracking. Bellingcat.

GIJN Guide:

Global Investigative Journalism Network. (n.d.). Planespotting: An updated guide to tracking aircraft around the world.

Global Investigative Journalism Conference 2023, (2023, October 7). Video on Plane and Ship Tracking,

OCCRP Guide:

Organized Crime and Corruption Reporting Project. "FAQ: What Is Plane Tracking?" Russian Asset Tracker. Accessed August 30, 2024..

Al Jazeera Guide:

OSINT: Tracking Ships, Planes and Weapons

Full list of country identifiers here:

Some lists of public registries: , , and ,

Photos: ,

Twitter hashtags: , , , , and .

Tool provider

Collins Aerospace, USA

Advertising Trackers

This tool has not been checked for advertising trackers yet.
This tool uses tracking cookies. Use with caution.
This tool does not appear to use tracking cookies.

Page maintainer

Ghunt

A command line tool for obtaining information about Google accounts.

URL

https://github.com/mxrch/GHunt (current version 2.3.3, Jan 25, 2025; latest on PyPI. GitHub tag: v2.2.0 released 2024‑06‑06)

Description

GHunt is a local, CLI‑based framework for investigating Google accounts and artifacts. It authenticates with a Google session (via the ; ) and exposes modules to pivot from inputs such as Gmail address, GAIA ID, Google Drive links, Wi‑Fi BSSID, and Digital Asset Links (DAL). Typical outputs include GAIA ID discovery from an email, service associations, Drive file/folder metadata, and approximate BSSID geolocation; JSON export is supported for several modules. As of v2.1.0, GHunt moved to an OAuth‑token based login flow while remaining compatible with the Companion extension.

Ghunt runs locally as a Python application. After installation with pipx and authenticating via the Ghunt Companion browser extension, users can run modules from the command line to search for information. The email module takes a Gmail address and returns the , associated YouTube channel, public photos, Drive files and other data. The gaia module queries a GAIA ID to find related Google services; the drive module extracts metadata from a shared Drive link; the geolocate module geolocates a BSSID, showing the approximate location of a Wi‑Fi access point.

Version 2 introduced Spiderdal, which follows to uncover assets, such as apps, associated with the target.

Ghunt relies on your own Google session cookies to access publicly visible data. You authenticate by running ghunt login and selecting the option to paste base64‑encoded cookies from the browser extension. Once authenticated, you can run modules and optionally export results to JSON. The tool is widely used by OSINT practitioners, law enforcement, and journalists to pivot from basic identifiers into broader investigations.

GHunt is designed to gather detailed information about Google accounts using the target's Gmail address. By using publicly accessible data, Ghunt surfaces various aspects of a Google user's digital footprint, including their YouTube channels, Google Photos, Google Maps reviews, and more. By analyzing this information, GHunt can provide insights into the target's online activities and digital footprint.

The developers have provided 2 scripts that leverage the tool .

The easiest way to authenticate into Ghunt is to use authentication option 2 alongside the Ghunt browser extension. After selecting option 2, go to your browser extension and obtain the base64-encoded credentials. You can use these to authenticate to Ghunt.

Once authenticated, you have the following search options:

email: Get information on an email address.
gaia: Get information on a .
drive: Get information on a Drive file or folder.

Cost

Free
Partially Free
Paid

The CLI is free and open‑source.

A hosted “GHunt Online” is offered by with plans advertised at £19/month (30 searches), £49/month (100), £99/month (300), and Gov/Enterprise from £1,000/month.

Level of difficulty

You’ll need to be comfortable with the command line, installing Python packages with pipx or pip, and completing the login flow using the Companion browser extension. Running modules and reading JSON output require basic CLI literacy.

Requirements

Runtime: Python ≥3.11 (project notes 3.13 compatibility). [1]
Install: pipx install ghunt (recommended isolated install) or pip install ghunt for library use.
Auth: Run

Limitations

Account name retrieval is unreliable/absent since ~April 2024; remain open.
Google log‑in endpoints and anti‑abuse systems change; expect intermittent login errors (e.g., 403s) and throttling/“Sorry” pages.
Geolocate returns approximate positions and won’t resolve every BSSID.

Ethical Considerations

Ghunt is licensed under the , and the developer emphasises it should be used only for personal, criminal investigations, penetration testing, or other lawful open‑source research.
Use GHunt only for lawful, proportionate purposes and with appropriate authority or consent. Minimize collection and retention, avoid targeting vulnerable individuals, and document your methods. For good‑practice standards on online investigations, see the Berkeley Protocol on Digital Open Source Investigations (OHCHR/UC Berkeley).

Guides and articles

Jake Creps:

Joseph Jones:

GHunt (setup & usage).

project page (install, releases).

Firefox Add‑ons listing.

Tool provider

Ghunt is developed by French security researcher Thomas “mxrch” Hertzog. He is a member of , a group of cybersecurity enthusiasts interested in software security, binary analysis, web security, cryptography, and IoT; the group operates a Capture‑the‑Flag team from France, founded in 2019. HideAndSec’s members include mxrch and other researchers.

License: AGPL‑3.0‑only (see LICENSE in repo / PyPI meta).

Github:

Twitter:

Website:

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Global Fishing Watch Map

The Global Fishing Watch Map is a digital platform for investigating fishing activities worldwide by utilising satellite and AIS data.

URL

https://globalfishingwatch.org/map

Description

The Global Fishing Watch Map is a digital platform designed to provide visibility into the activities of the global fishing fleet. Using satellite technology and (AIS) data, this tool provides transparency about fishing activities worldwide. The map is created with the intent to assist governments, research institutions, and conservation organizations in monitoring and managing marine resources more effectively.

This platform offers a variety of features to its users, including the ability to track vessel movement in near real-time, view historical data, and analyze fishing effort. Users can explore different layers of data, such as marine protected areas, to understand the impact of fishing on sensitive habitats. The tool has been used to combat illegal, unreported, and unregulated (IUU) fishing by making the activities of fishing vessels more accessible and transparent to the public and relevant authorities.

Features:

Activity Layers: see the following
- *Apparent fishing effort (AIS): filter by Sources (AIS and VMS), Flags (by country) and Gear Types.
- *Apparent fishing effort (Regional Vessel monitoring system (VMS): filter by Sources (AIS and VMS) and Flags (by country).

Registered account features:

Advanced vessel search: search on attributes such as IMO, Call sign, Owner and Flag.
Carrier Vessel Portal: access to the Carrier Vessel Portal.
Data download: downloadable vessel events.

The example below shows search results for location search term New Zealand filtered for New Zealand Flagged vessels for both AIS and VMS.

Global Fishing Watch is available in the following formats:

Cost

Free
Partially Free
Paid

Level of difficulty

Requirements

Email address: a registered account is required for some of the advanced features.
API: a registered account and an API Token

Limitations

The Global Fishing Watch Map, while useful when monitoring and visualizing maritime activities, does have its set of limitations:

Data Delay: The platform cannot display real-time data due to processing times, leading to potential delays in the information presented.
Data Coverage: Not all regions or vessels may be tracked effectively due to limitations in satellite coverage or non-participation in AIS (Automatic Identification System) broadcasting.
Accuracy Concerns: The tool's reliance on AIS data means that it is subject to potential inaccuracies or intentional AIS tampering by vessels wishing to avoid detection. (See: Clark, L. (no date) ‘Google’s Global Fishing Watch is using “manipulated data”’, Wired. Available at:

Ethical Considerations

While the Global Fishing Watch Map provides invaluable insights into maritime activities, it raises several ethical considerations that merit attention:

Privacy and Surveillance: The tool's ability to track and display the location and activities of vessels can raise privacy concerns, particularly in relation to the monitoring of individuals without their explicit consent.
Data Bias and Equity: Given the tool's reliance on AIS data, there might be a bias in favoring the monitoring of vessels equipped with AIS over smaller, local boats that might not use such technology, potentially skewing data and insights.
Misuse of Information: The detailed data available through the platform could be misused, either by authorities to exert excessive control or by malicious actors to target specific vessels.

Guides and articles

To effectively use Global Fishing Watch Map, especially for beginners or those looking to refine their skills, the following resources are highly recommended:

Official Wiki

Tutorials and Articles

‘Tutorials - Use Our Technology’ (no date) Global Fishing Watch. Available at: (Accessed: 4 May 2024).

Use Cases

An interactive map to monitor the activity of dark fleets in coastal waters (no date). Available at: (Accessed: 5 May 2024).
Global Fishing Watch Case Study (no date) Google Cloud. Available at: (Accessed: 5 May 2024).‘GlobalFishingWatch/gfwr’ (2024).
Off-radar fishing threatens efforts to preserve stocks, study warns (no date). Available at: (Accessed: 5 May 2024).

Video Tutorials

A walkthrough of the Global Fishing Watch map (2021). Available at: (Accessed: 5 May 2024).

Developer Resources

Community and Support

In-application support available.

Tool provider

Global Fishing Watch - United States

Independent, international nonprofit organization founded in 2015 through a collaboration between three partners: Oceana, SkyTruth and Google.

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Google Earth Engine

Google Earth Engine is a platform for environmental monitoring and analysis through satellite imagery and geospatial data.

URL

https://code.earthengine.google.com/

Description

Google Earth Engine is a cloud-based platform for environmental data analysis, object and change detection. It brings together a large collection of satellite imagery and geospatial datasets with planetary-scale analysis capabilities. This tool is designed for researchers and analysts engaged in environmental monitoring, land-use change detection and object and infrastructure detection. It solves the problem of managing and analyzing large datasets that require significant computational resources and creating sophisticated interactive visualisations.

GEE can be used with the following programming languages and tools:

- using Javascript.
- using Python.
- using R.

There's a huge range of climate and weather, imagery and geophysical datasets available here:

Features:

Language: supports multiple languages.

The example below is from Bellingcat's . The is an example use case using satellite images of Iraq taken at night to track the destruction caused by the fight against the Islamic State. If cities and villages are demolished, they become often less visible from space since they emit less light.

Full description including documentation

Example Use Cases:

Deforestation Monitoring: Utilizing the satellite imagery available on Google Earth Engine, researchers can track deforestation over time.
Urban Expansion Analysis: Analysts can use Google Earth Engine to monitor urban sprawl and the transformation of rural areas into urban centers.
Agriculture and Crop Monitoring: Farmers and agricultural researchers can leverage satellite data to monitor crop health and estimate yields.

Latest features and changes: .

Cost

Free
Partially Free
Paid

Google Earth Engine can be used for .

Level of difficulty

Requirements

Individual sign up Earth Engine access (easy):

Google Account - a Google email address and associated account (see: )

A role on a Google Cloud project (more complicated but more secure. See: ):

Google Account - a Google email address and associated account.
Google Cloud Project - a credit card and Google Cloud Project role with API access.

Limitations

Data Availability: Not all satellite data might be available or up-to-date. Each individual data set available in the details the availability of the individual dataset.
Processing Power: User code execution is limited by Google's computational resources, which might result in delays during peak usage. It's important to understand that processing on large datasets can hit processing limits see . For more information on GEE computational processing see the .
Learning Curve: The platform has a steep learning curve, especially for users without a programming background.

Ethical Considerations

Privacy Concerns: Remote sensing technologies can capture detailed images from space or high altitude, potentially compromising individual privacy. Researchers must balance the public interest with the rights to privacy.
Accuracy and Misinterpretation: Ensuring the accurate representation of data is critical. Misinterpretation of remote sensing data can lead to misinformation, shaping public opinion based on incorrect premises. Each dataset may have different standards for accuracy see the the for more information.

Guide

To effectively use Google Earth Engine, especially for beginners or those looking to refine their skills, the following resources are highly recommended:

Official Wiki

: full documentation in GEE.
: guides to the Javascript and Python APIs.
: catalog of all the available datasets.

Tutorials and Articles

: Bellingcat's tutorial to GEE written by Ollie Ballinger.
: full online course

Video Tutorials

Community and Support

: A place where users can ask questions about Google Earth Engine and receive answers from the community.
: Users can find or ask questions tagged with google-earth-engine, which includes topics on Google Earth Engine.

Tool provider

Google - United States.

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Google Maps

Google Maps provides mapping information, satellite imagery and Google Street View imagery including historical Street View images.

URL

https://www.google.com/maps

Description

Google Maps is a web-based service offering comprehensive information about geographical regions globally. It provides road maps, aerial and satellite views, and street views which makes it a useful resource for open-source researchers. It includes features like real-time traffic updates, business information, 3D views, and location sharing. However, not all of these are relevant to open-source researchers who typically use this service for geolocation and verification purposes. Here are some of the features that are most pertinent to researchers:

Satellite imagery

One of the advantages for open-source researchers when using Google Maps is that it offers access to satellite imagery. Being able to look at locations from all around the world from above is handy when conducting geolocations.

Google Maps' satellite mode can be switched on via the layers menu which is located at the bottom left of the map:

It must be noted that satellite imagery is not shown in real-time, as Google sources its imagery from suppliers. If you need very recent satellite imagery, for instance to report on a news event, you need to find alternatives to the free satellite imagery provided on Google platforms.

For many locations, Google provides historical satellite imagery allowing open-source researchers to compare imagery from the same location at different points in time. It is important to note that historical satellite imagery is not accessible via Google Maps but only via .

3D View

This feature displays urban features such as buildings, pylons, and other infrastructure, as well as natural elements like trees and mountains in a three-dimensional perspective. A 3D view can help open-source researchers get an immersive spatial view of geographical locations which are typically presented in a two-dimensional format on a map. However, researchers should not rely on 3D View representations alone. It is always recommended to also look at other pictures of the same location.

You can activate 3D mode by switching to satellite view, which you access by clicking on the layers icon at the bottom left. Make sure the globe option is enabled to use this feature. This option is in the Layers menu. For more details, to this guide from Google support on how to switch between Google map types.

Once activated, users can switch between 2D and 3D views by clicking on this icon on the right:

Users can tilt, rotate, and zoom in and out to explore areas of interest in greater depth.

The screenshot below shows the Brooklyn Bridge in New York City in 3D view.

From the 3D map interface, switch to the Street View option to view street-level photography of the area.

Street View

Street View offers 360-degree imagery, allowing users to explore an area from a ground-level perspective. Google Street View offers an extensive collection of stitched together to provide a virtual representation of an area. from anywhere in the world can contribute to this vast collection of street view imagery. The tech giant employs , including the Street View Car, , , and more, to capture and update imagery from tight and narrow spaces or areas "” to “”.

As of , “Google Street View cars equipped with cameras have captured and shared more than 220 billion Street View images and travelled over 10 million miles — the equivalent of circling the globe more than 400 times” since the launch of this service in 2007.

In recent years, Street View has become an invaluable resource for journalists and open-source researchers. Using Google’s street-level photography, researchers from Bellingcat successfully geolocated the house of a Malaysian wildlife trafficker for the “The Hunt for Malaysia's Elusive Wildlife Trafficker” in February 2025. They matched the photos of the house posted online with the Street View imagery, revealing the location where illegal wildlife trafficking was taking place.

To use this feature, search for an address or the coordinates of an area. Then, select the street view icon shown below:

Alternatively, one can select and drop the yellow "Pegman" from the bottom right corner of the screen and drop it onto your area of interest (depending on the available coverage).

It is also possible to view the coverage of Street View available for any location by selecting "Street View" from the layers menu. The screenshot below shows the coverage available for Moscow, Russia:

Once in this mode, explore the location using the 360-degree interface. Rotate the view, move up or down, and one can navigate through the area, depending on the available coverage.

It is important to note that Street View does not provide real-time photography of the area. Images do not show the location on the same day they were taken, according to Google’s street view page. Instead, it takes months to process the imagery before it is made available online. So, it can be “anywhere from a few months to a few years old.”

Time travel using historical imagery in street view

Open-source researchers can use the time travel feature to view older images of a location in Street View. This is beneficial in understanding how a location has changed over time. The historical imagery feature was in 2014, and coverage of some areas dates back to as early as 2007.

To view past images of an area, open the street view photography of the location of your choice. Once in street view mode, click on the “see more dates” at the top left corner (if available).

This opens up different windows for imagery of the area for the available dates. For instance, the screenshot below shows imagery from November 2007 of a new building for the Walter Cronkite School of Journalism and Mass Communication, which was still under construction in Phoenix, Arizona, at the time.

The school celebrated its grand opening in Phoenix in . Although there is no Street View imagery from the exact date of the opening, images from March 2009 are available and display the newly completed building:

Similarly, users can view imagery of the same area up to January 2023 and see how this region has changed over time! This feature is accessible in both the mobile and browser versions of Google Maps.

Not all areas around the world have extensive street view photography available. To overcome this shortcoming, consider exploring other street view from other services, such as , , and , among others.

Measure Distance

Another useful feature of Google Maps is its built-in measuring tool. A researcher can draw a line from one point on the map to another to determine the distance between them in area. If one measurement line is not sufficient, the tool also allows multiple lines to be drawn consecutively.

On the location of your choice, right-click on the map and select “Measure Distance” from the menu. Click on the starting point, drag to create a path, and then click again to complete the line. To remove it, click on the ending point. A point can also be moved by clicking on the point, holding and dragging it.

The visual below shows the distance between the Eiffel Tower and Émile Anthoine Stadium in Paris, France, using the measuring feature.

Other features

Google Maps offers additional useful features. One of them is Custom Maps, which enables users to create, personalise, and share their maps. Read more about this feature .

Formats

Google Maps is available in the following formats:

Mobile
: Developer API

Use Cases

Location Verification: Researchers can use Google Maps to verify the location of a news event, checking the geographical accuracy of claims made in various reports. Be aware that not all imagery is current, see: .
Event Visualization: By utilizing the satellite and street view features, researchers can offer readers a visual context of an event location, making stories more immersive.
Investigative Research: Google Maps can be an invaluable tool for investigative journalism, allowing reporters to explore and gather information on otherwise inaccessible locations or properties.

Using Bellingcat Filename Finder for Google Maps

The tool , enables users to view the filenames of images that have been uploaded by users to Google Maps, providing contextual information. Filenames are not automatically displayed when viewing an image on Google Maps. However, after installing the tool as a Google Chrome extension, filenames appear on images when using Google Maps. See more about this tool in Bellingcat's guide “.”

Cost

Free
Partially Free
Paid

Level of difficulty

Requirements

Web: any modern web browser
Mobile: iOS and Android
Developer Platform: Google account with email address and a credit card.

Limitations

Data Availability: While Google Maps offers comprehensive coverage, the availability of Streetview imagery, particularly in less populated or updated areas, may vary. For more information on how and when Street View imagery is collected see .
API Usage Limits: For developers using the Google Maps API, there are usage limits. Exceeding these limits without purchasing additional credits can lead to service interruptions. Google offers many APIs for mapping, geocoding and other GIS services. Each service comes with its own limits depending on the service. and information of the Maps Javascript API are something to investigate before using the service but for many low workload users it will not be an issue.

Ethical Considerations

When journalists use Google Maps, they should consider the following ethical aspects:

Privacy and Anonymity: Be cautious when reporting on sensitive areas or topics. Ensure individuals' locations or movements are not disclosed without consent, especially in contexts where revealing locations could endanger lives or privacy.
Data Accuracy and Misrepresentation: Verify the accuracy of the information provided by Google Maps. Misrepresenting a location, either intentionally or accidentally due to outdated or incorrect map data, can lead to misinformation and harm reputations. Be in particular and aware of the time lag behind the gathering of Street View imagery. For more information on how Google tries to ensure accuracy see and .

Guide

To effectively use Google Maps, especially for beginners or those looking to refine their skills, the following resources are highly recommended:

Official Wiki

Tutorials and Articles

‘Create Custom Maps in Google Maps’ (no date) Berkeley Advanced Media Institute. Available at: (Accessed: 31 August 2025).
How to keep using Google Maps even when your phone is offline (2023) Google. Available at: (Accessed: 31 April 2025).
Toler, A. (2020) How (Not) To Report On Russian Disinformation, Bellingcat. Available at: (Accessed: 31 August 2025).

Video Tutorials

10 Minute Tip: Google Maps for OSINT (2020). Available at: (Accessed: 31 August 2025).

Developer Resources

Google Maps API: Developers looking to integrate Google Maps into their websites or applications should refer to the for comprehensive documentation and coding examples.

Community and Support

: Explore the official for guides on basic functionalities, from searching locations to understanding map views.

Tool provider

Google - United States

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Google Earth Pro

Google Earth is a geospatial tool that provides detailed, global satellite imagery, maps, 3D terrain models, and the ability to explore geographic data interactively.

URL

https://www.google.com/earth/about/versions/

Description

Google Earth is a comprehensive geographic and spatial information tool suite. It allows users to explore a 3D representation of the earth, leveraging detailed imagery, geographic data, and various layers to display geographical phenomena, landmarks, and more. It offers open source researchers satellite imagery in relatively high resolution from various regions around the world, including historical imagery.

Versions Available:

Google Earth Web: A browser-based version that allows quick access without the need for software installation. Ideal for collaboration, casual exploration and educational purposes.
Google Earth Mobile: Offers the core functionalities of Google Earth optimized for mobile devices, enabling users to explore geographic data on-the-go.
Google Earth Pro Desktop: The most powerful version offering advanced features (historical imagery, sunlight angle, other planets, video tour recording) for professional users. It is recommended for open source researchers to use this version.

The example below shows a search for Amsterdam on Google Earth Pro Desktop with the "Photos" layer activated:

Example Use Cases

Geolocation: Open source researchers use the satellite imagery provided by Google Earth Pro to geolocate photos and videos.
Investigative Reporting: Research and investigate environmental changes, urban development, and other phenomena that are best observed from an aerial or geographic perspective.
Historical Analysis: Compare historical satellite images to present-day images to document changes in the environment, urbanization, and other significant transformations.

Features

Google Earth Pro is widely used amongst open source researchers due to its free to use satellite imagery. Bellingcat, for instance, used it to , to geolocate and the site amongst numerous other examples. One of its key features is the ability to compare satellite imagery of the same location over time.

Past imagery (historical imagery)

The use of historical images can be helpful for:

Recognizing changes in areas (e.g. nature, urban development, infrastructure). You can find an example for such a use case in the Financial Times article .
Being able to see (for example a building). Each image varies slightly in the angle at which it is taken. This means that different images can provide different perspectives.
Being able to see locations at different times and therefore with different positions of the sun and shadows. This can be useful when .

To see historical imagery in Google Earth Pro (the desktop version), select the clock symbol with the arrow in the top menu. A bar now appears in the top left-hand corner showing all available images from the past. You can use the arrow buttons to jump between the different images. The width of the slider shows the time span of available images, the vertical colored strips show the approximate time when the imagery was taken.

Label map

This is a simple, yet effective tool for your day to day work with Google Earth Pro. Labeling different items on your map helps you mark places that are relevant for your research which allows you to come back to them at a later point in time.

Choose placemarks or polygons from the top menu. Placemarks tag a specific location whereas polygons are used to tag an area. You can save your placemarks and polygons in a folder on the left side to make navigation and orientation easier.
You can now export a folder and share it with other researchers. They can then import your tags to have a look at them in their Google Earth Pro by dragging and dropping it into the folder structure on the left hand side.

You can also download KML data from other external sources and open them in Google Earth Pro. KML is a data structure that is used to save geographical data such as placemarks and polygons. Here is an example of free KML data: publishes (almost) real time fire data (Available: , accessed: 2. October 2025).

Measuring distances and areas

It can be helpful to measure distances and areas on satellite images. For example, you can calculate the size of , helicopters, or plots of land using Google Earth Pro.

Measuring distances

Choose the ruler tool or path tool

Choose two or more points on the map

Measuring areas

Choose the Polygon tool in the toolbar

A window will open. One tab is called "Measurements". Click on it.

3. Set as many points as you like on the Google Earth Pro map to create a polygon that covers your area of interest as accurately as possible. To do so, make sure sure to set one point after the other along the borders of the area in order to get a uniform surface. You can also move points afterwards (hover over them until the hand tool appears); the blue point is the one from which you can continue drawing. Remove erroneously set points with the Delete key on your keyboard

Show elevation profile

Choose this tool if you wish to see how the height changes along a path.

If you have a path saved already, click on it using right-click , select “show elevation profile”.
If you don’t have a path saved yet, open the ruler from the top menu, choose “path” and tick “show elevation profile”, then select the markers along your path. When your path has reached its destination, click “save”. It’ll appear in the folders on the right side.
Now you can see the elevation profile on the bottom of your screen. It’ll change as you navigate through the path.

Measuring building (or another object) height

Check if the building is rendered in 3D through enabling the 3D-mode in the layer section. Note: Not all regions are covered by 3D.
Enable the terrain layer.

Find the highest point of the building. Move your cursor to the highest point of the building. The height will be displayed in the status bar at the bottom (make sure to check the correct unit!).
Determine the ground level: Identify the elevation at the base of the building.
Calculate the height. Subtract the ground elevation from the building’s highest point – and there you have it!

Exploring a route via video

You can define and then explore a route as a POV-video in GEP. This might help if you want to examine a path leading to a specific destination or to get accustomed to a path you wish to take later.

Select the ruler from the top menu, choose “path”.
Place dots along the route you wish to explore and then save your path. For more precise measurements and a fluent video, it helps to place the dots closer to each other whenever there is a curve or a cross section as the line between the dots is always straight. Also, if the video is more important to you than the precise measurements of the route: Whenever you encounter a mountain, place the dots on the side opposite of the slope. Otherwise the camera will dive through the mountain and your view onto the path will not be good. But you’ll learn as you go. After saving the path appears in the folder structure on the left side.
Make sure your path is selected in the menu on the left side. Choose “Tools” from the top left menu → “Options” → “Touring”. Here you can select different camera settings for watching the tour. Just go by trial and error. For longer paths you might want to choose a quicker pace than for short paths. Save your settings clicking on “OK”.

Viewing GPS Data

When you import files that contain both geolocation data and timestamps, Google Earth can visualize the track.

Supported formats include KML, KMZ, and GPX. However, not all GPX files contain timestamps—check before importing.
To import you can just drag and drop the file into the places folder in Google Earth Pro. Or you choose File < Import in the top menu bar.

Note: If you import something into the “Temporary Places” folder it won’t get saved for the next time you open Google Earth Pro

If the imported file contains timestamps, a timeline automatically appears in the top left-hand corner
Adjusting the Time Window: Two sliders allow you to set a visible time range. This helps analyze movements or track data for a specific time period.

Shadow and Sun simulation tool

Primary use: Geolocating photos and videos. By comparing shadow patterns, you can estimate at which time a photo was taken, if the shadow in Google Earth matches the one in the image. But there are things to consider: Google Earth does not show exact shadow projections for all regions – the accuracy depends on the underlying data.

First step: Activate the 3D Buildings layer to view realistic shadows.

Note: not all regions have 3D views.

Click on the sun symbol in the top menu

Note: You can simulate the sun's movement for an entire year – meaning a full earth orbit around the sun. This allows you to view shadow patterns for any day and time of the year.

Using the Timeline and fine adjustment: In the top-left corner, use the magnifying glass icons (+/-) (orange frame on the screenshot) to zoom in on the timeline. This allows you to adjust the sun position down to the exact second (check the green frame, here you see the time), simulating precise lighting conditions.

4. Shadows and 3D Buildings in Historical Mode

In Historical Mode, 3D buildings remain visible, but they do not adjust to reflect the past. Therefore, it is recommended to toggle the 3D mode on and off to check if the building actually existed in the past for the selected time period.

Insert satellite imagery from other sources

You can insert satellite imagery from other sources into Google Earth Pro. That might be helpful whenever you have access to more recent imagery or a higher resolution, as the quality of Google Earth Pro data varies a lot depending on the region.

All you have to do is download the image in format.
Then drag and drop it into “places” on the left side.

Cost

Free
Partially Free
Paid

Level of difficulty

Requirements

Web: any modern web browser and a Google account with an email address.
Mobile: iOS and Android and a Google account with an email address.
Desktop: Windows, macOS or Linux.

Limitations

While Google Earth is a powerful tool, it does have some limitations that researchers should keep in mind:

Availability of up to date satellite imagery: While Google Earth Pro offers satellite imagery for free, it is and it depends on the location how often it is updated. Open source researchers who need both up to date and high resolution imagery will need to use another satellite imagery provider.
Data Accuracy and Currency: Data in Google Earth , leading to potential discrepancies with current conditions. Users should verify important information through other sources.
Resolution and Detail: Image resolution varies across different regions, with some areas having detailed imagery and others being less clear. See

Ethical Considerations

In the context of using remote sensing in online open source investigations, several ethical considerations should be considered:

Privacy Concerns: Remote sensing technologies can capture detailed images from space or high altitude, potentially compromising individual privacy. Researchers must balance the public interest with the rights to privacy.
Accuracy and Misinterpretation: Ensuring the accurate representation of data is critical. Misinterpretation of remote sensing data can lead to misinformation. For more information on how Google tries to ensure accuracy see and .

Guide

To effectively use Google Earth Pro, especially for beginners or those looking to refine their skills, the following resources are highly recommended:

Official Wiki

: installing, navigating, marking places, using KMLs, etc.
: official Google Earth Pro help.
: official Google Earth help.

Tutorials and Articles

Britt, K., McGee, J. and Campbell, J. (2024) An Introduction to Google Earth Pro, archive.is. Available at: (Accessed: 2 October 2025).
Strick, B. (2018) Geolocation of Infrastructure Destruction in Cameroon: A Case Study of Kumbo and Kumfutu, bellingcat. Available at: (Accessed: 2 October 2025).
Hanham, M. (2015) How Tall is That Gantry?, bellingcat. Available at:

Video Tutorials

Google Earth Basics Tutorial (2016). Available at: (Accessed: 4 April 2024).
Google Earth Pro - A Complete Beginner’s Guide (2021). Available at: (Accessed: 4 April 2024).

Other Sources

OSINT Military Base Map. Available at: (Accessed: 5 March 2025).
: Shows earth changes since 1984 (e.g. glaciers melting)

Community and Support

Tool provider

Google - United States of America

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Data Organization & Analysis

4plebs

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About Maps and Satellites

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ACLED

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Welcome to Bellingcat’s Online Open Source Investigation Toolkit!

Browse tools by category:

About

Welcome to Bellingcat’s Online Open Source Investigation Toolkit!

Browse tools by category:

About

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URL

Description

Introduction Maps and satellite imagery

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Requirements

Limitations

Ethical Considerations

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ACLED Explorer

ACLED Trendfinder

ACLED Conflict Alert System (CAST)

Conflict Exposure Calculator

Weekly Conflict Finder

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Use Cases:

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Limitations

Tool provider

Advertising Trackers

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Description